CHAPTER XXVIII

SKETCH OF THE MOTHER-SCHOOL

1. It is when it first comes into being that a tree puts forth the shoots that are later on to be its principal branches, and it is in this first school that we must plant in a man the seeds of all the knowledge with which we wish him to be equipped in his journey through life. A brief survey of the whole of knowledge will show the possibility of this, and this survey can easily be made if we bring everything under twenty headings.

2. (i) Metaphysic (as it is called) should certainly be our starting-point, since the first conceptions that children have are general and confused. They see, hear, taste, and touch, but are ignorant of the exact object of their sensations. They commence, therefore, by learning the general concepts: something, nothing, it is, it is not, thus, otherwise, where, when, like, unlike, etc., and these are nothing but the prime concepts of metaphysic.

3. (ii) In physics, a boy, during the first six years of his life, can be brought to know what are water, earth, air, fire, rain, snow, frost, stone, iron, trees, grass, birds, fishes, oxen, etc. He may also learn the names and uses of the members of his body, or at any rate of the external ones. At this age these things are easily learned, and pave the way for natural science.

4. (iii) A boy learns the elements of optics when he begins to distinguish and to call by their names light, dark​ness, and shade, and to know the difference between the principal colours, white, black, red, etc.

5. (iv) The rudiments of astronomy will consist in knowing what is meant by the heavens, the sun, the moon, and the stars, and in watching their rising and their setting daily.

6. (v) We know the elements of geography when we learn the nature of mountains, valleys, plains, rivers, villages, citadels, or states, according to the situation of the place in which we are brought up.

7. (vi) The basis of chronology is laid, if the boy understand what is meant by an hour, a day, a week, or a year; or what summer and winter are; or the signification of the terms “yesterday,” “the day before yesterday,” “to-morrow,” “the day after to-morrow,” etc.

8. (vii) The commencement of history consists in recollecting and reporting what has recently happened, or how this or that person has carried out this or that matter; though this exercise should only relate to some incident in the child’s life.

9. (viii) The seeds of arithmetic will be planted if the child understand what is meant by “much” and “little,” can count up to ten, can see that three are more than two, and that one added to three makes four.

10. (ix) He will possess the elements of geometry if he know what we mean by “large” and “small,” “long” and “short,” “broad” and “narrow,” “thick” and “thin”; what we signify by a line, a cross, or a circle, and how we measure objects in feet and yards.

11. (x) The elements of statics will have been learned if the children see objects weighed in scales, or acquire the power of telling the approximate weight of objects by weighing them in their hands.

12. (xi) They will receive a training in mechanics if they are permitted or are actually taught to employ their hands continually; for instance, to move something from one place to another, to arrange something else in one way or another, to construct something, or to pull something to ​pieces, to make knots or to undo them, and so forth; the very things that children of this age love to do. As these actions are nothing but the efforts of an active mind to realise itself in mechanical production, they should not be hindered, but rather encouraged and skilfully guided.

13. (xii) The elements of the process of reasoning, namely dialectic, are learned when the child observes that conversations are carried on by means of question and answer, and himself acquires the habit of asking and answering questions. He should, however, be taught to ask sensible questions and to give direct answers, and also not to wander from the point at issue.

14. (xiii) The grammar of childhood consists in learning to speak the mother-tongue correctly, that is to say, in pronouncing with distinctness the letters, syllables, and words.

15. (xiv) The beginnings of rhetoric consist in imitating the figures of speech that occur in family conversation, but more especially in the appropriate use of gesture, and in inflecting the voice so as to suit the words; that is to say, the voice should be raised on the last syllables of words, in asking questions, and lowered in answering them. This and similar points are acquired naturally, but a little instruction is of great assistance if any mistakes are made.

16. (xv) Children may get some notion of poetry by learning a number of verses off by heart, for preference those that contain some moral sentiment.

17. (xvi) They will take their first steps in music by learning easy hymns and psalms. This exercise should form part of their daily devotions.

18. (xvii) The rudiments of economics are acquired when the child learns the names of the various members of a family, that is to say, what is meant by the terms father, mother, maid-servant, man-servant, etc.; or the various parts of a house, as hall, kitchen, bedroom, stable; or the names of domestic utensils, as table, plate, knife, broom, etc.

​19. (xviii) It is not so easy to give a foretaste of politics, as at this age the understanding is only sufficiently developed to take in household affairs. Some attempt, however, may be made. It may be pointed out, for instance, that, in a state, some men meet together in a council-chamber and are called councillors, and that of these some are called members, others ministers, others lawyers, and so forth.

20. (xix) But it is of morals (ethics), in particular, that the foundations should be solidly laid, for to a well-educated youth we wish the practice of virtue to be second nature. For instance,

(1) Temperance should be practised by never overfilling the stomach, and by never taking more food than is necessary to appease hunger and thirst.

(2) Cleanliness should be practised at meals, and in the treatment of clothes, dolls, and toys.

(3) Reverence should be shown by the child to his superiors.

(4) Obedience to both commands and prohibitions should always be willing and prompt.

(5) Truth should always be religiously observed. Falsehood and deceit should never be permitted, whether in jest or in earnest (for jests of this kind may degenerate into a serious evil).

(6) They will learn justice if they never touch, take, keep, or hide anything that belongs to any one else, if they annoy no one, and envy no one.

(7) It is of greater importance that they learn to practise charity, so that they may be ready to give alms to those whom need compels to ask for them. For love is the especial virtue of Christians. Christ bids us practise it; and, now that the world is growing aged and cold, it is greatly to the interest of the Church to kindle in men’s hearts the flame of love.

(8) Children should also be taught to occupy themselves continually, either with work or with play, so that idleness may become intolerable to them.

​(9) They should be taught to speak but little and to refrain from saying all that rises to their lips, nay, even to maintain absolute silence when the occasion demands it; that is to say, when others are speaking, when any distinguished person is present, and when the circumstances demand silence.

(10) It is also important that they learn patience in infancy, since this will be of use to them throughout their whole lives. In this way the passions may be subdued before they acquire strength, while reason, and not impulse, will gain the upper hand.

(11) Politeness and readiness to help others is a great ornament of youth, and, indeed, of every age. This also should be learned in the first six years, that our youths may lose no opportunity of rendering services to those whom they meet.

(12) Nor must we omit to train them in good manners, that they may do nothing stupidly or boorishly. To this end they should learn the manners of polite society; such as how to shake hands, how to make a modest request when they want anything, and how to bend the knee and kiss the hand gracefully when returning thanks for a kindness.

21. (xx) Finally, by the time they are six years old, boys should have made considerable progress in religion and piety; that is to say, they should have learned the heads of the Catechism and the principles of Christianity, and should understand these and live up to them as far as their age permits. Thus, by realising that the Deity is ever present, by seeing God around them, and by fearing Him as the just avenger of the wicked, they will be prevented from committing any sinful act; while by loving, reverencing, and praising in Him the just recompenser of the righteous, and by seeking for His compassion in life and in death, they will be led to omit no righteous act that they think may please Him, will acquire the habit of living as if they were in God’s presence, and (as the Scripture saith) will walk with God.

​22. We shall thus be able to apply to Christian children the words that the Evangelist uses of Christ Himself: “He advanced in wisdom and stature, and in favour with God and men” (Luke ii. 52).

23. We have now described the limits and the tasks of the Mother-School.³⁸ It is impossible to give a more detailed account, or a time-table stating how much work should be done in each year, month, and day (as is both possible and desirable in the Vernacular-School and in the Latin-School), for two reasons: firstly, because it is not possible for parents, who have their household duties to occupy them, to proceed as methodically as a schoolmaster can, whose sole occupation is to instruct youth; secondly, because, in respect of intellect and teachableness, some children develope much sooner than others. Some children of two years old can speak with ease, and display great intelligence, while others are scarcely equal to them when five years old. With this early education, therefore, all detail must be left to the prudence of the parent.

24. Assistance, however, may be given in two ways. In the first place, a hand-book should be written for parents and nurses, that they may have their duties in black and white before their eyes. This hand-book should contain a brief description of the various subjects in which the children should be educated, and should state the occasions that are most suitable for each, and with what words and what gestures it is best to instil them. Such a book with the title, “Informatory of the Mother-School,” has still to be written by me.

25. The other aid to study in the Mother-School is a picture-book which should be put straight into the child’s hands. At this age instruction should mainly be carried on through the medium of sense-perception, and, as sight is the chiefest of the senses, our object will be attained if we give the children pictures of the most important objects in physics, optics, astronomy, geometry, etc., and these may be arranged in the order of the subjects of knowledge that we have just sketched. In this book should be depicted ​mountains, valleys, trees, birds, fishes, horses, oxen, sheep, and men of varied age and height. Light and darkness also should be represented, as well as the heavens with the sun, moon, stars, and clouds, while to these the principal colours should be added. Articles connected with the house and the workshop, such as pots, plates, hammers, pincers, etc., should not be omitted. State functionaries should be represented; the king with his sceptre and crown, the soldier with his arms, the husbandman with his plough, the waggoner with his waggon, and the post-cart going at full speed; while over each picture should be written the name of the object that it represents, as “house,” “ox,” “dog,” “tree,” etc.

26. This picture-book will be of use in three ways: (1) It will assist objects to make an impression on the mind, as we have already pointed out. (2) It will accustom the little ones to the idea that pleasure is to be derived from books. (3) It will aid them in learning to read. For, since the name of each object is written above the picture that represents it, the first steps in reading may thus be made.

CHAPTER XXVI

OF SCHOOL DISCIPLINE

1. There is a proverb in Bohemia, “A school without discipline is like a mill without water,” and this is very true. For, if you withdraw the water from a mill, it stops, and, in the same way, if you deprive a school of discipline, you take away from it its motive power. A field also, if it be never ploughed, produces nothing but weeds; and trees, if not continually pruned, revert to their wild state and bear no fruit. It must not be thought, however, that we wish our schools to resound with shrieks and with blows. What we demand is vigilance and attention on the part of the master and of the pupils. For discipline is nothing but an unfailing method by which we may make our scholars, scholars in reality.

2. As regards discipline, therefore, it is advisable that the educator of youth know its object, its subject-matter, and the various forms which it may assume, since he will then know why, when, and how, systematised severity is to be used.

3. We may start with the incontestable proposition that punishment should be employed towards those who err. But it is not because they have erred that they should be punished (for what has been done cannot be undone), but in order that they may not err again in the future. Discipline should therefore be free from personal elements, such as anger or dislike, and should be exercised with such ​frankness and sincerity of purpose, that even the pupils may feel that the action taken is for their good, and that those set over them are but exercising paternal authority. They will thus regard it in the same light as a bitter draught prescribed for them by the doctor.

4. Now no discipline of a severe kind should be exercised in connection with studies or literary exercises, but only where questions of morality are at stake. For, as we have already shown, studies, if they are properly organised, form in themselves a sufficient attraction, and entice all with the exception of monstrosities) by their inherent pleasantness. If this be not the case, the fault lies, not with the pupil, but with the master, and, if our skill is unable to make an impression on the understanding, our blows will have no effect. Indeed, by any application of force we are far more likely to produce a distaste for letters than a love for them. Whenever, therefore, we see that a mind is diseased and dislikes study, we should try to remove its indisposition by gentle remedies, but should on no account employ violent ones. The very sun in the heavens gives us a lesson on this point. In early spring, when plants are young and tender, he does not scorch them, but warms and invigorates them by slow degrees, not putting forth his full heat until they are full-grown and bring forth fruit and seeds. The gardener proceeds on the same principle, and does not apply the pruning-knife to plants that are immature. In the same way a musician does not strike his lyre a blow with his fist or with a stick, nor does he throw it against the wall, because it produces a discordant sound; but, setting to work on scientific principles, he tunes it and gets it into order. Just such a skilful and sympathetic treatment is necessary to instil a love of learning into the minds of our pupils, and any other procedure will only convert their idleness into antipathy and their lack of interest into downright stupidity.

5. If, however, some stimulus be found necessary, better means than blows can be found. Sometimes a few severe words or a reprimand before the whole class is very effica​cious, while sometimes a little praise bestowed on the others has great effect. “See how well so-and-so attends! See how quickly he sees each point! While you sit there like a stone!” It is often of use to laugh at the backward ones. “You silly fellow, can’t you understand such a simple matter?” Weekly, or at any rate monthly, contests for the first place in class may also be introduced, as we I have shown elsewhere. Great care, however, should be taken that these experiments do not degenerate into a mere amusement, and thus lose their force; since, if they are to act as a stimulus to industry, they must be backed on the part of the pupil by a love of praise and a dislike of blame or of losing his place in class. It is therefore absolutely essential that the master be always in the room, that he throw a good deal of energy into his work, and that he scold the idlers and praise the hard-working boys before the whole class.

6. Only in the case of moral delinquencies may a severer discipline be used: (1) as, for instance, in the case of impiety of any kind, such as blasphemy, obscenity, or any other open offence against God’s law. (2) In the case of stubbornness and premeditated misbehaviour, such as disobeying the master’s orders, or the conscious neglect of duty. (3) In the case of pride and disdain, or even of envy and idleness; as, for example, if a boy refuse to give a schoolfellow assistance when asked to do so.

7. For offences of the first kind are an insult to God’s majesty. Those of the second kind undermine the foundation of all virtue, namely, humility and obedience. While those of the third kind prevent any rapid progress in studies. An offence against God is a crime, and should be expiated by an extremely severe punishment. An offence against man is iniquitous, and such a tendency should be promptly and sternly corrected. But an offence against Priscian is a stain that may be wiped out by the sponge of blame. In a word, the object of discipline should be to stir us up to revere God, to assist our neighbours, and to perform the labours and duties of life with alacrity.

​8. The sun in the heavens teaches us the best form of discipline, since to all things that grow it ministers (1) light and heat, continuously; (2) rain and wind, frequently; (3) lightning and thunder, but seldom; although these latter are not wholly without their use.

9. It is by imitating this that the master should try to keep his pupils up to their work.

(1) He should give them frequent examples of the conduct that they should try to imitate, and should point to himself as a living example. Unless he does this, all his work will be in vain.

(2) He may employ advice, exhortation, and sometimes blame, but should take great care to make his motive clear and to show unmistakably that his actions are based on paternal affection, and are destined to build up the characters of his pupils and not to crush them. Unless the pupil understands this and is fully persuaded of it, he will despise all discipline and will deliberately resist it.

(3) Finally, if some characters are unaffected by gentle methods, recourse must be had to more violent ones, and every means should be tried before any pupil is pronounced impossible to teach. Without doubt there are many to whom the proverb, “Beating is the only thing that improves a Phrygian,” applies with great force. And it is certain that, even if such measures do not produce any great effect on the boy who is punished, they act as a great stimulus to the others by inspiring them with fear. We should take great care, however, not to use these extreme measures too readily, or too zealously, as, if we do, we may exhaust all our resources before the extreme case of insubordination which they were intended to meet, arises.

10. In short, the object of discipline should be to confirm those who are being trained up for God and for the Church, in that disposition which God demands in His sons, the pupils in the school of Christ, so that they may rejoice with trembling (Psalm ii. 11), and looking to their own salvation may rejoice always in the Lord (Phil. ii. 4 and 10), ​that is to say, that they may love and reverence their masters, and not merely allow themselves to be led in the right direction, but actually tend towards it of their own accord.

This training of the character can only be accomplished in the above-mentioned ways: by good example, by gentle words, and by continually taking a sincere and undisguised interest in the pupil. Sudden bursts of anger should only be used in exceptional circumstances, and then with the intention that renewed good feeling shall be the result.

11. For (to give one more example) did any one ever see a goldsmith produce a work of art by the use of the hammer alone? Never. It is easier to cast such things than to beat them out, and, if any excrescence have to be removed, it is not by violent blows that the artificer gets rid of it, but by a series of gentle taps, or by means of a file or a pair of forceps; while he completes the operation by polishing and smoothing his work. And do we believe that irrational force will enable us to produce intelligent beings, images of the living God?

12. A fisherman, too, who catches fish in deep waters with a drag-net, not only fastens on pieces of lead to sink it, but also attaches corks to the other end of it, that it may rise to the surface of the water. In the same way whoever wishes to ensnare the young in the nets of virtue, must, on the one hand, humble and abase them by severity, and, on the other, exalt them by gentleness and affection. Happy are the masters who can combine these two extremes! Happy are the boys who find such masters!

13. Here we may quote the opinion which that great man, Eilhard Lubinus, doctor of theology, has expressed on the reform of schools in the preface to his edition of the New Testament in Greek, Latin, and German—

“The second point is this: the young should never be compelled to do anything, but their tasks should be of such a kind and should be set them in such a way that they will do them of their own accord, and take pleasure ​in them. I am therefore of opinion that rods and blows, those weapons of slavery, are quite unsuitable to freemen, and should never be used in schools, but should be reserved for boys of an abnormal and servile disposition. Such boys are easily recognised and must be removed from the school at once, on account both of the sluggishness of their disposition and of the depravity that is generally found in conjunction with it. Besides, any knowledge that they may acquire will be employed for wicked purposes, and will be like a sword in the hands of a madman. There are, however, other kinds of punishment suitable for boys who are free-born and of normal disposition, and these we may employ.”

CHAPTER XXV

IF WE WISH TO REFORM SCHOOLS IN ACCORDANCE WITH THE LAWS OF TRUE CHRISTIANITY, WE MUST REMOVE FROM THEM BOOKS WRITTEN BY PAGANS, OR, AT ANY RATE, MUST USE THEM WITH MORE CAUTION THAN HITHERTO.³⁴

1. Resistless necessity compels us to treat at length a subject which we have touched on in the previous chapter. If we wish our schools to be truly Christian schools, the crowd of Pagan writers must be removed from them. First, therefore, we will set forth the reasons which underlie our views, and then the method of treating these ancient writers so that, in spite of our caution, their beautiful thoughts, sayings, and deeds may not be lost to us.

2. Our zeal in this matter is caused by our love of God and of man; for we see that the chief schools profess Christ in name only, but hold in highest esteem writers like Terence, Plautus, Cicero, Ovid, Catullus, and Tibullus. The result of this is that we know the world better than we know Christ, and that, though in a Christian country, Christians are hard to find. For with the most learned men, even with theologians, the upholders of divine wisdom, the external mask only is supplied by Christ, while the spirit that pervades them is drawn from Aristotle and the host of heathen writers. Now this is a terrible abuse of Christian liberty, a shameless profanation, and a course replete with danger.

​3. Firstly, our children are born for heaven and are reborn through the Holy Ghost. They must therefore be educated as citizens of heaven, and their chief instruction should be of heavenly things, of God, of Christ, of the angels, of Abraham, of Isaac, and of Jacob. This instruction should take place before any other, and all other knowledge should be shielded from the pupil; firstly, because of the uncertainty of life, that no one may be snatched away unprepared, and secondly, because first impressions are the strongest, and (if they are religious impressions) lay a safe foundation for all that follows in life.

4. Secondly, God, though He made provision of every kind for His chosen people, gave them no school other than his own Temple, where He Himself was the Master, we were the pupils, and his oracles were the subject taught. For thus He speaks by Moses: “Hear, O Israel, the Lord our God is one God: and thou shalt love the Lord thy God with all thine heart, and with all thy soul, and with all thy might. And these words, which I command thee this day, shall be upon thine heart; and thou shalt teach them diligently unto thy children, and shalt talk of them when thou sittest in thine house, and when thou walkest by the way, and when thou liest down, and when thou risest up” (Deut. vi. 4). And by Isaiah: “I am the Lord thy God, which teacheth thee to profit, which leadeth thee by the way that thou shouldst go” (xlviii. 17); and again, “Should not a people seek unto their God?” Christ also says: “Search ye the Scriptures” (John v. 39).

5. God has shown by the following words that His voice is the brightest light for our understanding, the most perfect law for our actions, and the surest support for our weakness. “Behold, I have taught you statutes and judgments! Keep therefore and do them; for this is your wisdom and your understanding in the sight of the peoples, which shall hear all these statutes and say: Surely this great nation is a wise and understanding ​people” (Deut. iv. 5, 6). To Joshua, also, He speaks thus: “This book of the law shall not depart out of thy mouth, but thou shalt meditate therein day and night. For then thou shalt make thy way prosperous and thou shalt have good success” (Jos. i. 8). By David also He says: “The precepts of the Lord are right, rejoicing the heart: the commandment of the Lord is pure, enlightening the eyes” (Psalm xix. 8). Finally, the Apostle bears witness “that every scripture inspired of God is profitable for teaching, etc., that the man of God may be complete” (2 Tim. iii. 16, 17). The wisest of men (by this I mean truly enlightened Christians) have made the same assertion. Chrysostom has said: “What it is needful to know, and what it is not needful to know, that we can learn from the Scriptures.” And Cassiodorus³⁵ says: “The Scriptures are a heavenly school, a guide through life, the only true source of information. To search for the true meaning of them should occupy the student’s whole time, and leave him no leisure to be led astray by philology.”

6. God expressly forbade His chosen people to have anything to do with the learning or the customs of the heathen: “Learn not the way of the nations” (Jer. x. 2); and again, “Is it because there is no God in Israel that ye go to inquire of Baalzebub the God of Ekron? (2 Kings i. 3); “Should not a people seek unto their God? on behalf of the living should they seek unto the dead? To the law and to the testimony! if they speak not according to this word, surely there is no morning for them” (Isaiah viii. 19, 20). And why? Surely because “all wisdom cometh from the Lord, and is with him for ever. To whom else hath the root of wisdom been revealed?” (Ecclesiasticus i. 1, 6); “Although they have seen light and dwelt on the earth, the way of knowledge have they not known. Nor understood the paths thereof, etc. It hath not been heard of in Chanaan, neither hath it been seen in Theman. The Agarenes that seek wisdom upon earth, the authors of fables and searchers out of understanding, have not known the way ​of wisdom. But he that knoweth all things knoweth it and hath found out all the way of knowledge and hath given it unto Jacob his servant and Israel his beloved” (Baruch iii. 20, 21, 22, 23, 32, 36, 37); “He hath not dealt so with any nation, and as for his judgments, they have not known them” (Psalm cxlvii. 20).

7. Whenever His people went aside from His laws to the snares of man’s imagination, God used to blame not only their folly in forsaking the fountain of wisdom (Baruch iii. 12), but the twofold evil that they had committed, in forsaking Him, the fountain of living waters, and hewing them out broken cisterns that could hold no water (Jer. ii. 13). Through the agency of Hosea He complained also that His people held too much intercourse with other nations, saying: “Though I write for him my law in ten thousand precepts, they are counted as a strange thing” (Hos. viii. 12). But, I ask, is not this what those Christians are doing who hold heathen books in their hands night and day, while of the sacred Word of God they take no account, as if it did not concern them? And yet, as God bears witness, it is no vain thing, but our very life (Deut. xxxii. 47).

8. Therefore the true Church and the true worshippers of God have sought for no teaching other than the Word of God, from which they have drawn the true and heavenly wisdom that is superior to all earthly knowledge. Thus David says of himself: “Thy commandments make me wiser than mine enemies,” and “I have more understanding than all my teachers, for thy testimonies are my meditation” (Psalm cxix. 98, 99). Similarly Solomon, the wisest of mortals, confesses: “The Lord giveth wisdom; out of his mouth cometh knowledge and understanding” (Prov. ii. 6). The son of Sirach also testifies (in the prologue to his book) that his wisdom is drawn from the law and the prophets. Hence the exultation of the righteous when they see light in the light of God (Psalm xxxvi. 9); “O Israel, happy are we: for things that are pleasing to God are made known unto us” (Baruch ​vi. 4). “Lord, to whom shall we go? thou hast the words of eternal life” (John vi. 68).

9. The examples of all ages show us that it has been an occasion for stumbling whenever the Church has turned aside from the fountain of Israel. Of the Jewish Church, sufficient is known from the lamentations of the Prophets. As regards the Christian Church, we learn from history that a pure faith lasted as long as the Gospel, and nothing else, was preached by the Apostles and their successors. But as soon as the heathen entered the Church in numbers, and the ardour that existed at first grew cold, pagan books were read, at first in private and then in public, and the result was a great confusion of doctrine. The key of knowledge was lost by the very men who boasted that they alone possessed it, and from that time opinions without number were substituted for the articles of faith. Then did strife arise, whose end is not yet visible; charity grew cold, and piety disappeared. And thus, under the name of Christendom, paganism came into existence again, and still reigns supreme. For the threat of the Lord Jehovah had to be fulfilled: “If they speak not according to the Word of God, surely there is no morning for them” (Isaiah viii. 20). “Therefore the Lord hath poured out upon them the spirit of sleep, and hath closed their eyes, that all vision might become unto them as the words of a book that is sealed,” because they worshipped God in accordance with the teaching man (Isaiah xxix. 10, 11, 13, 14). O, how truly in their case is fulfilled what the Holy Spirit says of the heathen philosophers: “They became vain in their reasonings, and their senseless heart was darkened” (Rom. i. 21). In short, if the Church is to be purified from uncleanness, there is only one way, and that is to put aside all the seductive teaching of man and return to the pure springs of Israel, and thus to give over ourselves and our children to the teaching and guidance of God and of His word. Thus at last will the prophecy come to pass, “And all thy children shall be taught of God” (Isaiah liv. 13).

​10. Indeed our dignity as Christians (who have been made sons of God and heirs of the kingdom of heaven through Christ) does not permit us to degrade ourselves and our children by allowing them to have an intimate acquaintance with pagan writers, and to read them with such approval. We do not choose parasites, fools, or buffoons, but serious, wise, and pious men as tutors for the sons of our kings and princes. Should we not blush, therefore, when we confide the education of the sons of the King of Kings, of the brothers of Christ and heirs of eternity, to the jesting Plautus, the lascivious Catullus, the impure Ovid, that impious mocker at God, Lucian, the obscene Martial, and the rest of the writers who are ignorant of the true God? Those who, like them, live without the hope of a better life, and wallow in the mire of earthly existence, are certain to drag down to their own level whoever consorts with them. Christians, we have carried our folly far enough! Let us pause here. God calls us to better things, and it is good to obey His call. Christ, the eternal Wisdom of God, has opened a school for the sons of God in His own house; in which the supreme control is exercised by the Holy Spirit, and the professors and masters are the Prophets and the Apostles, all endowed with true wisdom, and all holy men, who, by their teaching and example, point out the way of truth and of salvation; where the pupils are the elect of God, the first-fruits of men, ransomed by God and by the Lamb; where the inspectors and guardians are the angels and archangels, the principalities and powers in heaven (Eph. iii. 10); and where true wisdom, which is of use to us in this world and the next, is taught on all subjects that the mind of man can grasp. For the mouth of God is the fountain from which all the streams of wisdom flow; the countenance of God is the torch from which the rays of true light are scattered; the Word of God is the root from which spring the shoots of true wisdom. Happy are they, therefore, who look on the face of God, listen to His words, and receive His sayings in their hearts. For this is the only ​true and infallible way to attain the true and eternal wisdom.

11. Nor can we omit all mention of the earnestness with which God forbade His people to have anything to do with the works of the heathen, and of the consequences that followed their disregard of His injunction: “The Lord will consume those nations from thy sight. But the graven images of their gods shall ye burn with fire. Thou shalt not covet the silver or gold that is on them, nor take it unto thee, lest thou be snared therein, for it is an abomination to the Lord thy God; and thou shalt not bring an abomination into thine house, and become a devoted thing like unto it” (Deut. vii. 22, 25, 26). And again: “When the Lord thy God shall cut off the nations from before thee, take heed to thyself that thou be not ensnared to follow them, after that they be destroyed from before thee, and that thou inquire not after their gods, saying, How do these nations serve their gods? But what thing soever I command you, that shall ye observe to do; thou shalt not add thereto, nor diminish from it” (Deut. xii. 29). After their victory Joshua reminded them of this, and advised them to remove the idols (Jos. xxiv. 23); but they did not obey him, and these heathen productions became a snare for them, so that they continually fell into idolatry until both kingdoms were overthrown. Should not we, therefore, take warning by their example, and avoid their error?

12. “But books are not idols,” some one will say. I reply: They are the works of the heathen, whom God has destroyed from before the face of His Christian people, as He did of old. Nay, they are more dangerous than idols. For these only led away those who were fools at heart (Jer. x. 14), while books deceive even the wisest (Col. ii. 8). The former were works of men’s hands (as God used to say when chiding the folly of the idolaters), the latter are the works of the human understanding. The former dazzled the eyes by the brilliancy of their gold and silver, the latter blind the intelligence by the plausibility of their ​carnal wisdom. Do you still deny that pagan books are idols? What was it that led the Emperor Julian away from Christ? What was it that so undermined the understanding of Pope Leo X. that he believed the history of Christ to be a mere fable? Under what influence did Cardinal Bembo³⁶ dissuade Sadoleto from reading the Bible (saying that such folly was unsuitable for so great a man)? What is it that in these days leads so many learned Italians and others towards Atheism? Would that there were none in the reformed Church of Christ who have been drawn away from the Scriptures by Cicero, Plautus, and Ovid, writers that reek of death.

13. But it may be said: The abuse must be attributed not to the things, but to the persons. There are pious Christians to whom no harm is done by reading pagan authors. The Apostle replies: “We know that no idol is anything in the world: howbeit in all men there is not that knowledge (that is to say, the power of discerning). Take heed lest this liberty of yours become a stumbling-block to the weak” (1 Cor. viii. 4, 7, 9).

Now God in His mercy preserves many from destruction, and there is no excuse for us if, knowingly and willingly, we have anything to do with such snares (I mean the divers inventions of the human mind or of Satan’s cunning), since it is certain that some, nay most men, are unhinged by them and are led into Satan’s net. Let us rather obey God and not bring idols into our house, nor set up Dagon by the Ark of the Covenant, nor mingle the wisdom that is from on high with that which is earthly, bestial, and devilish, nor give any occasion for stirring up the anger of God against our sons.

14. Of a precisely similar nature was the event that Moses uses as an illustration. Nadab and Abihu, the sons of Aaron, and young priests (in ignorance of their duty), filled their censers with common, instead of with sacred, fire. For this they were smitten with fire by God, and died (Levit. x. 1). Now what are the children of Christians but a holy priesthood to offer up spiritual sacrifices to ​God? (1 Peter ii. 5). If we fill their censers, their minds, with strange fire, are we not handing them over to the anger of God? For to a Christian soul all is strange, and should be strange, that has any other source than the Holy Spirit; and of such a kind are the ravings of the heathen philosophers and poets, as the Apostle bears witness (Rom. i. 21, 22; Col. ii. 8, 9). Not without reason did Jerome call poetry the wine of devils; since it intoxicates the incautious and sends them to sleep, and, while they sleep, plies them with monstrous opinions, dangerous temptations, and the foulest desires. We should therefore be on our guard against these philtres of Satan.

15. If we do not obey the wise counsels of God, the Ephesians will stand in judgment against us, for they, as soon as the light of divine wisdom shone upon them, burnt all their curious books, since these were henceforth useless to them as Christians (Acts xix. 19). The modern Greek Church also, although there exist the most excellent philosophical and poetical works, written by the Greeks of old, who were reputed the wisest of men, has forbidden its followers to read them under pain of excommunication. The result of this is that, although with the invasion of barbarism they have fallen into great ignorance and superstition, God has hitherto preserved them from being carried away by anti-Christian error. In this matter, therefore, we ought to imitate them, that (greater stress being laid on the reading of Scripture) the heathen darkness, which still remains, may be removed, and that in the light of God we may see light (Psalm xxxvi. 9). “O house of Jacob, come ye, and let us walk in the light of the Lord” (Isaiah ii. 5).

16. Let us now see by what reasonings the mind of man rebels against these injunctions, and winds about like a snake, seeking to avoid the necessity of obeying the Faith and serving God. The arguments used are as follows:

17. (i) Great wisdom is to be found in the philosophers, the orators and the poets. I answer: Those are worthy of darkness who turn away their eyes from the light. Twilight is as mid-day to the owl, but animals, that are ​accustomed to light, think otherwise. O foolish men who look for light in the darkness of the human reason! Lift up your eyes on high. The true light comes from heaven, from the Father of Light! Any light that is visible in human efforts arises from a few sparks that seem to shine because of the darkness that surrounds them; but what are a few sparks to us, in whose hands a blazing torch has been placed (the effulgent word of God)? If men investigate natural phenomena, they do but set the glass to their lips, without touching the wine; while in the Scriptures the Ruler of the Universe Himself counts the mysteries of His works, and explains the nature of things created, visible and invisible. When the philosophers talk of morals, they are like birds that have been caught with quicklime, for they make great efforts to move without making any advance. But the Scriptures contain true descriptions of the virtues, with keen exhortations that pierce to the marrow. When pagan writers wish to teach piety, they merely teach superstition, since they are not imbued with the true knowledge of God or of His will. “For, behold, darkness shall cover the earth, and gross darkness the peoples: but the Lord shall arise upon thee, and his glory shall be seen upon thee” (Isaiah lx. 2). Now the sons of light should be at liberty to journey to the sons of darkness, that, having seen what a difference there is, they may rejoice the more in the path of light, and may feel compassion for the darkness of their neighbours; but to wish to exalt their glimmer above our own light is intolerable, and an insult to God and to our souls. “Of what advantage is it,” says Isidor,³⁷ human doctrine, and know nothing of “to be learned in divine? to follow perishable inventions, and despise heavenly mysteries? If we love the Scriptures we must avoid those books that outwardly are eloquent and well written, but inwardly lack wisdom.” What a condemnation of such books! They are husks without kernels. Such was also the opinion of Philip Melanchthon: “What do the best philosophers teach but self-confidence and self-love? Cicero in his De Finibus estimates each kind of virtue with ​reference to self-love. How much pride and haughtiness there is in Plato! It seems to me that a self-sufficient character must inevitably imbibe faulty instincts from the ambition that pervades his writings. The teaching of Aristotle is nothing but one long struggle to prove himself worthy of a good place among the writers on practical philosophy” (System of Theology).

18. (ii) Again it is said: If they do not teach theology rightly, at any rate they teach philosophy, and this cannot be learned from the sacred writings, that have been given us for our salvation. I answer: The Word of God most high is the fountain of wisdom (Ecclesiasticus i. 5). True philosophy is nothing but the true knowledge of God and of His works, and this cannot be learned better than from the mouth of God Himself. For this reason St. Augustine, praising the Holy Scripture, says: “Here is philosophy, since the cause of everything that exists is in the Creator. Here are ethics, since a good and honest life can only be formed if those things are loved which ought to be loved, that is to say, God and our neighbour. Here is logic, since truth, the light of the rational soul, is God Himself. Herein is the salvation of the state; for the state can never be well guarded, or test on a foundation of confidence and peace, unless the common good be loved, and this, in its highest and truest sense, is God.” Recently, too, it has been pointed out by many that the foundations of all the sciences and philosophic arts are contained in Scripture, and more truly than elsewhere, so that the part played by the Holy Spirit in our education is indeed wonderful. For, though its first object is to instruct us in things invisible and eternal, it nevertheless unfolds the laws of nature and of art at the same time, teaching us how to reason wisely on all subjects and how to apply our reason in a practical manner. Yet of all this there is but a trace in the works of the pagan philosophers. A writer on theology has said that the marvellous wisdom of Solomon consisted in bringing the law of God into the families, the schools, and the public places, ​and there is no reason why the wisdom of Solomon, that is to say, true and heavenly wisdom, should not once more be ours, if we give our children the Word of God instead of pagan books, and thus supply them with counsels for all the chances of life. Our object, therefore, should be to have in our homes that which can make us wise, even in that external or worldly wisdom that we call philosophy. Those were luckless times when the children of Israel had to go down to the Philistines to polish each man his plough, his mattock or his axe, because there was no smith in the land of the Israelites (1 Sam. xiii. 19, 20). But it is surely not necessary that the resources of the Israelites should always be limited in this way; especially as the arrangement was a bad one, for the following reason: the Philistines supplied the Israelites with harrows, but on no account would they supply them with swords that might be used against themselves. From the pagan philosophers, in the same way, you can get the well-known syllogisms and flowers of speech, but from this source you will find it impossible to procure swords and spears with which to combat impiety and superstition. Let us then hope for the times of David and of Solomon, when the Philistines were laid low but Israel reigned and rejoiced in its good fortune.

19. (iii) But, for the sake of style, students of Latin should read Terence, Plautus, and similar writers. I answer: Are we to bring our children into ale-houses, cook-shops, taverns, and other dens of iniquity, in order that they may learn how to speak? For, I ask you, is it not into such unclean places that Terence, Plautus, Catullus, Ovid, and the rest of them lead our young? What do they set before them but jesting, feasting, drunkenness, amours, and deceits, from which Christians should avert their eyes and ears, even if they encounter them by chance? Is the natural man not depraved enough, that it is necessary to bring to him and to show to him all manner of wickedness, and, as it were, to seek out opportunities to hurl him to destruction? But it will be said: “The matter in those authors is not all bad.” I answer: Evil sticks far more ​readily than good, and it is therefore a very dangerous practice to send the young to a spot where good and evil occur in combination. If we wish to poison any one, we do not give him poison alone, but mix it with some pleasant drink, the presence of which does not interfere with the action of the poison. This is precisely the way in which these men-destroyers of old mixed their hellish poisons with cunning inventions and with elegance of style; and are we to remain conscious of their devices and not strike the potion from their hands?

Some one else may object: “They are not all lascivious writers. Cicero, Virgil, Horace, and others are serious and earnest.” I answer: None the less they are blind pagans, and turn the minds of their readers from the true God to other gods and goddesses (Jove, Mars, Neptune, Venus, Fortune, etc.), though God has said to His people: “Make no mention of the name of other gods, neither let it be heard out of thy mouth” (Exodus xxiii. 13). Then what a chaos of superstitions, of false opinions, of earthly desires at variance with one another, is to be found in these writers! The spirit with which they fill their readers must be very different from that of Christ. Christ calls us from the world, they plunge us into the world. Christ teaches self-abnegation, they teach self-love. Christ teaches us to be humble, they to be magnanimous. Christ demands meekness, they inculcate self-assertion. Christ bids us be simple as doves, they show us how to turn an argument in a thousand different ways. Christ urges us to modesty, they spend their time in mocking others. Christ loves those who believe easily, they prefer those who are suspicious, argumentative, and obstinate. To conclude briefly and in the words of the Apostle: “What communion hath light with darkness? and what concord hath Christ with Belial? or what portion hath a believer with an unbeliever?” (2 Cor. vi. 15). Rightly does Erasmus say: “Bees avoid withered flowers; and no book, the contents of which are impure, should be opened.” And again: “It is safest to sleep on clover, ​for it is said that no serpents lurk in it, and on the same principle we should confine ourselves to those books in which no poison is to be feared.”

20. Moreover, what attraction have these pagan authors that is not to be found in our sacred writers? Are they the only people who understand the elegances of style? The most perfect master of language is he who gave it to us, the Holy Spirit. His words are sweeter than honey and more piercing than a two-edged sword; more active than the fire that liquefies metals, and weightier than a hammer which grinds rocks to powder, for they tell us of God. Is it heathen writers alone who relate marvellous events? Our Scriptures are full of events that are truer and far more wonderful. Are they the only authors who can fashion figures of speech, and riddling sayings, or write passages that are forcible and pithy? Our Scriptures are full of such passages. Leprous is his imagination who prefers Abana and Pharphar, rivers of Damascus, to Jordan and the waters of Israel (2 Kings v. 12). Blind is the eye to which Olympus, Helicon, and Parnassus seem more beautiful than Sinai, Sion, Hermon, Tabor, and Olivet. Deaf is the ear to which the lyre of Orpheus; of Homer, or of Virgil sounds sweeter than David’s lute. Corrupt is the palate to which Nectar, Ambrosia, and the Castalian springs taste better than celestial Manna and the fountains of Israel. Perverse is the heart that finds more pleasure in the names of the gods, the goddesses, the muses, and the graces than in the adorable names of Jehovah, of Christ the Saviour, and of the Holy Ghost. Blind is the hope that wanders through the Elysian fields in preference to the gardens of Paradise. With them all is romance, a mere shadow of truth, while with us all is reality and the very essence of truth.

21. But it will be said: These writers contain elegances of speech and moral sentiments that are worthy of our adoption. Is not this a sufficient reason for sending our children to them? Should we not spoil the Egyptians ​and strip them of their raiment ? Does not God bid us do so? (Exodus iii. 22). It is the right of the Church to usurp all the possessions of the heathen. I answer: When Manasseh and Ephraim wished to seize the land of the heathen, the men alone advanced; the women and children stayed behind in safety (Joshua i. 14). We should do the same. Men of wisdom and judgment, steadfast in the faith, should go forward and disarm these pagan writers; the young should not be exposed to danger. What if our youths were killed or wounded or taken prisoner? How many, alas, has pagan philosophy already drawn away from Christ and given over to Atheism! The safest plan, therefore, is to send armed men to deprive those accursed by heaven of their gold, silver, and precious things, and to distribute them among the heirs of God. O that God would stir up some heroic spirit to cull those flowers of elegance from the vast deserts in which they grow, and plant them in the garden of Christian philosophy, that nothing be lacking there.

22. Finally, if any pagan writers are to be countenanced, let them be Seneca, Epictetus, Plato, and similar teachers of virtue and honesty; since in these comparatively little error and superstition are to be found. This was the opinion of the great Erasmus, who advised that the Christian youth be brought up on the Holy Scriptures, but added: “If they have anything to do with profane literature, let it be with those books that approximate most closely to the Scriptures” (Compendium of Theology). But even these books should not be given to the young until their Christian faith is well assured; and in any case careful editions should be issued in which the names of the gods and the general tone of superstition should be removed. For it is on the condition that their heads be shaved and their nails pared, that God allows heathen maidens to be taken to wife (Deut. xxi. 12). Let there be no misunderstanding. We do not absolutely prohibit Christians from reading heathen writings, since to those who believe Christ has given the power of taking up serpents, and drinking deadly things ​with impunity (Mark xvi. 18); but the sons of God, whose faith is yet weak, should not be exposed to these serpents, and to give them the opportunity of drinking such poison would indeed be rash. Great caution should therefore be used, and this is what we urge. The Spirit of Christ has said that the children of God should be nourished by the spiritual milk that is without guile (1 Peter ii. 2; 2 Tim. iii. 15).

23. But those who thus incautiously aid the cause of Satan and oppose that of Christ have yet another argument. “The Holy Scriptures,” they say, “are too hard for the young, and therefore some other books must be given them to read until their judgment is mature.”

I answer: This is the language of those who err and know not the Scriptures nor the power of God, as I will show in three ways: firstly, there is a well-known story told of Timotheus the celebrated musician, that whenever he took a fresh pupil he asked him if he had already learned the rudiments with another master. If he answered in the negative he took him at a moderate price; if in the affirmative he charged twice as much. For he said that those who had already learned give him twice as much trouble, as he had first to cure them of their bad habits, and then to teach them the right way to play. Now, our master, and that of the human race, is Jesus Christ, and we are forbidden to go to any other (Matt. xvii. 5, and xxiii. 8). He it was who said: “Suffer the little children to come unto me, and forbid them not” (Mark x. 14), and shall we, contrary to His will, lead them elsewhere? Are we afraid that Christ’s task will be too light, and that He will teach them His ways too easily? And are we therefore to take them through the cook-shops and taverns, and give them to Christ to reform when thoroughly corrupt? This is a terrible proposal for the unhappy and innocent boys; for either they will have to spend their whole lives in laboriously getting rid of the habits they have acquired, or they will be altogether rejected by Christ, and given over to the tuition of Satan. Is not that which has been ​consecrated to Moloch an abomination to God? Let the Christian magistrates and the heads of the Churches—by God’s mercy I implore it—take steps to prevent Christian boys, born in Christ and consecrated through baptism, from being offered up to Moloch.

24. The cry that the Scriptures are too difficult to be understood by children, is altogether false. Does God not know how to suit His Word to our understanding? (Deut. xxxi. 11, 12, 13). Does not David say that the law of the Lord gives wisdom to little ones (N.B. to little ones)? Does not Peter say that the Word of God is milk for the newborn babes of God, given to them that they may grow thereby unto salvation (1 Peter ii. 2)? The Word of God, therefore, is the sweetest and best milk for the new-born children of God. Why oppose God on this point? Especially since pagan learning needs teeth to masticate it; yes, and often breaks them. Therefore the Holy Spirit, through David, invites the little ones into His school: “Come, ye children, hearken unto me; I will teach you the fear of the Lord” (Psalm xxxiv. 11).

25. Lastly, that the Scriptures contain passages of great profundity is perfectly true; but they are of such a kind that, while elephants sink to the bottom, lambs can swim with ease in them, to quote the words of St. Augustine when he wished to lay stress on the difference between the wise of the world who rush into Scriptural criticism presumptuously and Christ’s little ones who approach God’s Word in a humble and meek spirit. Besides, what need is there to begin with difficult passages? We can proceed step by step. First, we should embark upon the Catechism, and then keep in shallow water by teaching Scripture history, moral sentences, and the like, that can be easily understood, but which at the same time lead to the weightier matters that follow. And finally, when our pupils are fit for it, we can introduce them to the mysteries of the Faith. Thus, knowing the sacred writings from their infancy, they will be the more easily preserved from worldly corruption, and will be made wise unto salvation through ​faith which is in Christ Jesus (2 Tim. iii. 15). For, if a man give himself up to God, sit at the feet of Christ, and listen to the wisdom that comes from on high, it is impossible that the Spirit of Grace should not fill him, kindle within him the light of true reason, and point out the true path of salvation.

26. I pass over the fact that those authors who are placed before Christian boys instead of the Bible (Terence, Cicero, Virgil, etc.), possess the very defects that are attributed to the Scriptures, since they are difficult and not suited to the young. It was not for boys that they wrote, but for men of mature judgment, accustomed to the theatre and the law-courts, and it therefore goes without saying that they can be of no advantage to any one else. One thing at any rate is certain, that he who has reached man’s estate will derive more profit from reading Cicero once than if he had learned his entire works off by heart when a boy, and that such studies should therefore be deferred to a suitable season, and then only approached by those to whom they will be of use, if indeed they are of use to any one.

Of far greater importance is the point that has already been mentioned, namely, that the task of Christian schools is to form citizens, not for the world, but for heaven, and that they should accordingly be supplied with masters who are better acquainted with heavenly than with earthly things.

27. Let us conclude, therefore, with the angelic words: “In the place wherein the highest beginneth to show his city, there can no man’s building be able to stand” (2 Esdras x. 54). As God wishes us to be trees of righteousness, the planting of the Lord, that He may be glorified (Isaiah lxi. 3), we should not allow our children to be shrubs in the plantation of Aristotle, or of Plato, or of Plautus, or of Cicero, or of any author whose works they may chance to read: “Every plant, which my heavenly Father planted not, shall be rooted up” (Matt. xv. 13); “Tremble therefore, ye who cease not to murmur, and to exalt yourselves against the knowledge of God” (2 Cor. x. 5).

CHAPTER XXIV

THE METHOD OF INSTILLING PIETY

1. Piety is the gift of God, and is given us from on high by our counsellor and guide, the Holy Spirit. But, since the Holy Spirit usually employs natural agencies, and has chosen parents, teachers, and ministers who should faithfully plant and water the grafts of Paradise (1 Cor. iii. 6–8), it is right that these should appreciate the extent of their duties.

2. We have already explained what we mean by piety, namely, that (after we have thoroughly grasped the conceptions of faith and of religion) our hearts should learn to seek God everywhere (since He has concealed Himself with His works as with a curtain, and, invisibly present in all visible things, directs all, though unseen), and that when we have found Him we should follow Him, and when we have attained Him should enjoy Him. The first we do through our understanding, the second through our will, and the third through the joy arising from the consciousness of our union with God.

3. We seek God by noticing the signs of His divinity in all things created. We follow God by giving ourselves up completely to His will, both to do and to suffer whatever shall have seemed good to Him. We enjoy God by so acquiescing in His love and favour that nothing in heaven or on earth appears to us more to be desired than God Himself, that nothing appears pleasanter to think of, and ​nothing sweeter than to sing His praises; thus our hearts are joined to His in love.

4. The sources from which we can draw this exaltation are three, and the manner in which we can draw from them is threefold.

5. These sources are Holy Writ, the world, and ourselves. The first is the Word of God, the second is His handiwork, and the third is inspired by Him. There is no doubt that we can derive the knowledge and the love of God from the Scriptures. The very heathen testify that piety can be derived from the world and from the wise contemplation of the marvellous works of God contained in it; for they, by nothing but the contemplation of the world, were brought to revere the Godhead. This is shown by the examples of Socrates, Plato, Epictetus, Seneca, and others. But still, in the case of these men, to whom no special revelation from on high had been given, this feeling of love was imperfect, and wrongly directed. That those who seek to gain a knowledge of God from His word as well as from His works are filled with the deepest love for Him, is shown by the instances of Job, Elihu, David, and other pious men.

6. The manner of drawing piety from these sources is threefold meditation, prayer, and examination.

“These three,” says Luther, “make a theologian; but indeed they are essential to make a true Christian.”

7. Meditation is the constant, attentive, and devoted consideration of the works, the words, and the goodness of God; the thoughtful acknowledgment that it is from the good-will of God alone (either active or permissive) that all things come, and that all the counsels of the divine will attain their end in the most marvellous ways.

8. Prayer is the frequent, or rather the continual, yearning after God, and the supplication that He may sustain us in His mercy and guide us with His Spirit.

9. Examination is the continual testing of our progress in piety, and may come from ourselves or from others. Under this head come human, devilish, and divine temptations. For men should examine themselves to see if they ​are faithful, and do the will of God; and it is necessary that we should be tested by other men, by our friends, and by our enemies. This is the case when those who are set over others are vigilant and attentive, and, by open or by secret scrutiny, try to find out what progress has been made; or when God places an adversary by our side to teach us to find our refuge in Him, and to show us how strong our faith is. Finally, Satan himself is sent by God, or comes against us of his own accord, that the state of our hearts may be made evident.

These three modes, therefore, must be instilled into the Christian youth, that they may learn to raise their hearts to Him who is the first and the last of all things, and may seek rest for their souls in Him alone.

10. The special method is contained in twenty-one rules.

(i) Care should be taken to instil piety in early childhood.

For not to put off such instruction is advantageous, and to put it off is dangerous, since it is only reasonable to begin with what naturally comes first, and is the most important. But what is more important than piety? What else is profitable for all things, having promise of the life which now is, and of that which is to come? (1 Tim. iv. 8). This is the one thing needful (Luke x. 42), to seek the Kingdom of God, since all things shall be added to him who does so (Matt. vi. 33). To postpone this is hazardous, since, unless the mind be imbued with the love of God when young, it is easy for a silent contempt of the Godhead and for profanity to make their entrance, and when once they have done so, it is difficult, if not impossible, to dislodge them. Thus the prophet, complaining of the horrible impiety of his people, says that there are none left whom God can teach, save “them that are weaned from the milk and drawn from the breasts,” that is to say, the young (Isaiah xxviii. 9), and another prophet says that it is impossible to convert to well-doing those that are accustomed to do evil (Jeremiah xiii. 23).

​11. (ii) Therefore, as soon as children can use their eyes, their tongues, their hands, and their feet, let them learn to look towards heaven, to stretch their hands upwards, to utter the names of God and of Christ, to bend the knee before His unseen majesty, and to revere it.

It is not so difficult to teach these things to children as those imagine, who, not realising how important it is for us to tear ourselves away from Satan, from the world, and from ourselves, pay little consideration to a matter of such gravity. At first the children will not understand the true nature of what they are doing, since their intelligence is still weak; but what is of importance is that they learn to do that which subsequent experience will teach them to be right. For, when they have got into the habit of acting as they should, it will be easier to explain to them why such conduct is good, and how it is best carried out. God has commanded to consecrate all first-fruits to Him; why not, therefore, the first-fruits of our thoughts, of our utterances, of our movements, and of our actions?

12. (iii) While it is still possible to influence boys, it is of great importance to impress upon them that we are not here for the sake of this life, but are destined for eternity; that our life on earth is only transitory, and serves to prepare us for our eternal home.

This can easily be taught by the examples of infants, boys, outh and old men who are daily snatched away by death. These facts should be diligently impressed on the young, that they may realise how very transitory our life on earth is.

13. (iv) They should also be taught that our only business on earth should be to prepare for the next world.

For it would be foolish to pay attention to those things which will be taken from us, and to neglect those things which will accompany us into eternity.

14. (v) They should then be taught that the life to which men go when they leave this earth, is twofold: either a blessed life with God, or a wretched one in hell, and that both are everlasting.

​This may be demonstrated by the example of Lazarus and the rich man; for the soul of the former was carried away by angels into heaven, while that of the latter was carried by devils into hell.

15. (vi) And that those are thrice happy, who order their conduct in such a way that they are found worthy to stand in God’s presence.

For apart from God, the source of light and of life, there is nothing but darkness, terror, agony, and everlasting death that knows no end; so that it were better that they had never been born, who stray from God and cast themselves into the pit of eternal destruction.

16. (vii) But that those who have communed with God on earth, will go to Him after death.

As did Enoch and Elias, both while living, and others also (Gen. v. 24).

17. (viii) That those commune with God who keep Him continually before their eyes, fear Him, and fulfil His word.

And that this is the whole duty of man (Eccles. xi. 13), to which Christ referred when He said, “There is but one thing needful” (Luke x. 42). This is what Christians should ever have on their lips and in their hearts, lest, like Martha, they be too much engrossed with the cares of this life.

18. (ix) They should, therefore, acquire the habit of referring to God all that they see, hear, touch, do, and endure on earth.

Instances of this should be given. Those, for instance (it may be pointed out), who devote themselves to letters and a life of contemplation, should do so with but one object in view, namely, that they may see in everything the power, the wisdom, and the goodness of God, that they may be filled with love for Him, and may unite themselves so fast to Him in love that they can never be torn away. Those, again, who are engaged in practical pursuits, such as agriculture or mechanics, these have to seek bread and the necessaries of life; but they should do so merely that they may live in decent comfort, and should strive to live thus solely that they may be enabled to serve God with a ​quiet and cheerful spirit, and that, by serving Him and proving acceptable to Him, they may be united with Him eternally. Those who have other ends in view deviate from God’s will and from God Himself.

19. (x) From the very outset they should learn to find their chief occupation in those things that lead directly to God: in reading the Scriptures, in religious ceremonies, and in other good works.

For the perusal of the Scriptures renews and fosters our acquaintance with God, religious ceremonies create a link between God and man, and good works strengthen this link, for they show that we really observe the Word of God. These three should be seriously commended to all who are destined to lead a Godly life (as are all the Christian youth, dedicated to God through baptism).

20. (xi) The Holy Scriptures must be the Alpha and the Omega of Christian schools.

Hyperius³¹ said that a theologian was born of the Scriptures, and we may find this observation at greater length in the Apostle Peter, who says that the sons of God are born of incorruptible seed, through the Word of God that liveth and abideth (1 Peter i. 23).

In Christian schools, therefore, God’s Book should rank before all other books; that, like Timothy, all the Christian youth may, from boyhood, know the sacred writings which are able to make them wise unto salvation (2 Tim. iii. 15), and may be nourished in the words of the faith (1 Tim. iv. 6). On this subject Erasmus has written well in his Paraclesis, or Exhortation to the Study of Christian Philosophy. “The Holy Scripture” (he says) “is equally suitable to all, is within the capacity of little ones, nourishes them with milk, cherishes them, sustains them, and does all for them until they grow up in Christ. But, while it can be comprehended by the lowest intelligences, it is none the less an object of wonder to the highest. There is no age, no sex, no rank of life to which it is unsuitable. The sun is not more the common property of mankind than is the teaching of Christ. It rejects none ​save those who hold themselves at a distance.” He continues, “Would that it were translated into all languages, that it might be known by the Turks and the Saracens, and by the Scotch and the Irish as well. Many would mock, it is true, but some would be won over. Would that the ploughman might sing it at his plough, that the weaver might repeat it at his loom, that the traveller might beguile the tedium of the journey by its sacred story, and that the conversations of Christians were taken from its pages; for our daily conversation represents our true character. Let each one get and read as much of Holy Writ as he can. Let him who is behind not envy him who is in front. Let him who is in front beckon forward him who is behind, and despise him not. Why do we confine to a few the book that contains the faith of all?” And near the end, “May all whom we have dedicated to Christ in baptism be imbued with His teaching while in the arms of their parents and among the caresses of their nurses. For that which the mind first drinks in, sinks deepest and remains longest. Let our first babbling be of Christ, and let our infancy be modelled upon His Evangelists, which should be set before boys in such a way that they may like them. In these studies they should be trained, until by a silent increase they develope into men, whose strength is in Christ. Happy is he whom death snatches away while engaged on this study. Let us all, therefore, drink in God’s Word with our whole hearts, let us embrace it, let us die while occupied with it, let us be converted into it, since our morals are so intimately connected with our studies.” In his Compendium of Theology also he says: “In my opinion, it would not be a waste of time to learn the Holy Book off by heart, even though we did not understand it, as says St. Augustine.”

Christian schools, therefore, should resound not with Plautus, not with Terence, not with Ovid, not with Aristotle, but with Moses, David, and Christ, and methods should be devised by which the Bible may be given to children dedicated to God (for all the children of Christians ​are holy) (1 Cor. vii. 14) as a means of learning their A B C; for thus they would grow familiar with it. For as language is made up of the sounds and the symbols of letters, thus is the whole structure of religion and piety formed out of the elements of Holy Scripture.

21. (xii) Whatever is learned from Scripture should convey a lesson of faith, charity, and hope. These are the three noblest dispositions, and to these everything that God has seen good to reveal to us in His Word has reference. For He reveals some things to us that we may believe them, others He commands us that we may do them, and others again He promises that we may expect them from His mercy, both in this and in the future world. In the whole Bible nothing occurs that cannot be brought under one of these heads. All, therefore, should be taught to understand and to read intelligently what God has revealed.

22. (xiii) Faith, charity, and hope should be taught for practical use.

From the very beginning it is necessary to form practical and not theoretical Christians, if we wish to form true Christians at all. For religion is a real thing and not a reflection of reality, and should prove its reality by the practical results that it produces, just as a seed that is planted in good earth soon germinates. Hence the Scripture requires a “working faith” (Gal. v. 6), calls faith apart from works “barren” (James ii. 20), and asks for a “living hope” (1 Peter i. 3). Hence the constant injunction, that things are revealed from on high that we should do them. Christ also says: “If ye know these things, blessed are ye if ye do them” (John xiii. 17).

23. (xiv) Faith, charity, and hope will be taught in a practical manner, if boys and all men are taught to believe implicitly in all that God reveals, to do all that He commands, and to expect all that He promises.

It should be carefully impressed on the young that, if they wish the Word of God to supply them with divine strength, they should bring to it a humble and devoted ​heart, prepared to submit itself to God on all occasions, and actually doing so at the time. The sunlight reveals nothing to him who refuses to open his eyes, nor can a banquet satisfy him who refuses to eat; and in the same way the divine light supplied to our minds, the rules given for our actions, and the happiness promised to those who fear God, are all in vain unless they are received with prompt faith, earnest charity, and firm hope. Thus Abraham, the father of the faithful, trusted the Word of God and believed things incredible to the reason; obeyed the commands of God, no matter how hard they were (when bidden leave his native land and sacrifice his son); and hoped for things that seemed impossible, trusting in the promises of God-which living and active faith was counted to him for righteousness. All, therefore, who devote themselves to God, should be taught to fulfil these duties in their own persons.

24. (xv) Whatever is taught to the young in addition to the Scriptures (sciences, arts, languages, etc.) should be taught as purely subordinate subjects. In this way it will be made evident to the pupils that all that does not relate to God and to the future life is nothing but vanity.

Socrates is praised by the ancients because he turned philosophy from its barren and thorny speculations and brought it to bear on the province of morals. The Apostles professed to recall Christians from the thorny questions of the law and to lead them to the sweet charity of Christ (1 Tim. i. 5 seq.), and in the same way many modern theologians urge us to leave confused controversies, that destroy the Church far more than they build it up, and to attend to our own consciences and the practice of piety.

O that God would have pity on us, that we might find some universal method by which all that occupies the mind of man might be brought into relation with God, and that we might learn to convert the business of this life, in which all mankind is immersed, into a preparation for the life to come! This would, indeed, be a sacred ladder on which our minds might mount to the ​eternal protector of all things, to the source of true happiness.

25. (xvi) All should be taught to reverence God both inwardly and outwardly. For inward without outward reverence tends to grow faint, while outward without inward reverence degenerates into hypocrisy.

The outward worship of God consists in conversing about Him, in preaching and hearing His Word, in adoring Him on bended knee, in singing His praises in hymns, and in attending to the Sacraments and the other services of the Church, public and private. The inward worship of Go consists of continual meditation on the divine presence, of fearing and loving God, of abnegation and resignation of self, and of the ready will to do or to suffer all that God desires. These two forms of worship must be joined together, and not torn asunder; not only because it is right that God should be glorified in our bodies and in our minds, which belong to Him (1 Cor. vi. 20), but also because they cannot be separated without danger. Outward ceremonies without inward truth are an abomination to God, who says: “Who demands these things from you?” (Isaiah i.), “for He is a spirit and must be worshipped in spirit and in truth” (John iv.) But, since we are not merely spirits but have bodies and senses as well, it is necessary for our senses to be outwardly stimulated, that we may inwardly do what is right in spirit and in truth. On this account God, though He lays more stress on inward worship, ordained outward ceremonies and wishes them to be observed. Christ freed the worship of the New Testament from ceremony and taught that God should be worshipped in spirit and in truth, yet He Himself bent His head when He prayed to His Father, and continued His prayer for nights together; used to attend religious meetings, heard and questioned the doctors of the law, preached the Word, and sang hymns. Therefore, when we educate the young, we should educate them thoroughly, externally and internally, since otherwise we may produce either hypocrites, that is to say, superficial, fraudulent, and false worshippers ​of God, or fanatics, who delight in their own visions, and through their contempt of outward form undermine the Church, or, finally, lukewarm Christians, in whom the stimulus of external or the reality of internal worship is wanting.

26. (xvii) Boys should be carefully habituated to the outward works which are commanded by God, that they may know that it is true Christianity to express faith by works.

Such works are the exercise of temperance, justice, pity, and patience, which should continually occupy our attention. “For, unless our faith brings forth such fruit it is manifestly dead” (James ii.) But it must be living if it is to bring us salvation.

27. (xviii) They should also learn to distinguish carefully the objects of the blessings and of the judgments of God, that they may make a good use of them.

Fulgentius³² (Letter II. to Gallas) divides the blessings of God into three classes. According to him, some are to last for ever, others are to help us to attain eternity, while others are only for the use of this present life. Of the first kind are the knowledge of God, the joy of the Holy Spirit, and the love of God that fills our hearts. Of the second kind are faith, hope, and compassion for our neighbours. Of the third kind are health, riches, friends, and the other external goods that of themselves make us neither happy nor unhappy.

In the same way the judgments or chastisements of God are of three kinds. Some (whom God wishes to spare in the life everlasting) are seized on earth and are tortured that they may be purified and whitened (Dan. xi. 35; Rev. vii. 14), as was the case with Lazarus. Others are spared here that they may be punished in eternity, as was the Rich Man. While the punishments of others begin here and are continued in eternity, as is the case with Saul, Antiochus, Herod, Judas, etc.

Men, therefore, must be taught to distinguish all these from one another, that they may not be deceived by the good things of the flesh and give precedence to what is ​transitory, that they may realise that present ills are less to be feared than hell-fire, and “that they should not fear those who can only kill the body and have no further power, but Him who can destroy the body and can also thrust the soul down to hell” (Luke xii.)

28. (xix) They should also be told that the safest path of life is the path of the Cross; that Christ the King of Life has trodden it before us, and invites to it and leads along it those whom He loves best.

The mystery of our salvation was consummated on the Cross and depends on the Cross; for by it the old Adam was slain that the new Adam, fashioned after God’s image, might live. Those, therefore, whom God loves, He chastises and crucifies with Christ, that when they rise with Christ He may set them on His right hand in heaven. Now, though this lesson of the Cross tells the power of God to save those who believe, to the flesh it is foolishness and an offence (1 Cor. i. 18). It is therefore very necessary to teach this lesson to Christians with great care, that they may understand that they cannot be the disciples of Christ unless they deny themselves, bear the Cross of Christ on their shoulders (Luke xiv. 26), and are prepared throughout their whole lives to follow God wherever He may lead them.

29. (xx) Care must be taken that, while all this is being taught, no conflicting examples come in the way.

That is to say, the boys must not hear or see blasphemies, perjuries, or other acts of impiety, but, whichever way they turn, should encounter nothing but reverence for the Deity, observance of religion, and conscientiousness. Evil conduct, also, whether at home or at school, should always be severely punished, and, if the punishment for profanity be always greater than for offences against Priscian³³ or for other faults, it will be impressed upon them that the former error is the more important to guard against.

30. (xxi) In this corrupt state of the world and of human nature we never make as much progress as we ought, or, if we do advance, are filled with complacency and spiritual pride, through the depravity of our flesh.

​Now this is a very great danger (for God resists the proud), and therefore all Christians should be taught in their youth that our endeavours and our works are of no avail, unless Christ, the Lamb of God who takes away the sins of the world, help us with His perfection. On Him we must call and Him we must trust.

We shall thus have finally placed the hope of our salvation in safety, when we have laid the burden on Christ, the corner-stone. For He is the culminating point of all perfection in heaven and on earth, and is the one and only originator and guardian of our faith, our charity, our hope, and our salvation. For this reason God sent Him from heaven that He might become Immanuel (or God in man) and unite all men in God, and that, living with purity in the life which He had assumed, He might give men the example of a divine life; that by His innocent death He might expiate the sins of the world in His person, and might wash us clean with His blood; that He might show His victory over death by His resurrection, and ascending into heaven might send the Holy Ghost, the pledge of our salvation; and that He might thus rule us and preserve us, and, finally, take us to Himself, that we may be with Him and see His glory.

31. Thus to the eternal Saviour of all men, with the Father and the Holy Ghost, be praise, and honour, and blessing, and glory, for evermore. Amen.

32. It remains to draw up detailed method for the several classes.

CHAPTER XXIII

THE METHOD OF MORALS

1. So far we have discussed the problem of teaching and learning the sciences and the arts with greater readiness. We should, however, bear in mind the remark of Seneca (Epist. 89): “We ought not to learn these things, but rather to have learned them.” They are, indeed, nothing but a preparation for more important matters, and as he says, “our beginnings, and not our completed works.” What then is our true work? It is that study of wisdom which elevates us and makes us steadfast and noble-minded—the study to which we have given the name of morality and of piety, and by means of which we are exalted above all other creatures, and draw nigh to God Himself.

2. We must therefore see how this art of instilling true virtue and piety may be elaborated on definite system, and introduced into schools, that we may with justice be able to call them the “forging-places of humanity.”

3. The art of shaping the morals is based upon the following sixteen fundamental rules:

(i) All the virtues, without exception, should be implanted in the young.

For in morality nothing can be omitted without leaving a gap.

4. (ii) Those virtues which are called cardinal should be first instilled; these are prudence, temperance, fortitude, and justice.

​In this way we may ensure that the structure shall not be built up without a foundation, and that the various parts shall form a harmonious whole.

5. (iii) Prudence must be acquired by receiving good instruction, and by learning the real differences that exist between things, and the relative value of those things.

A sound judgment on matters of fact is the true foundation of all virtue. Well does Vives say: “True wisdom consists in having a sound judgment, and in thus arriving at the truth. Thus are we prevented from following worthless things as if they were of value, or from rejecting what is of value as if it were worthless; from blaming what should be praised, and from praising what should be blamed. This is the source from which all error arises in the human mind, and there is nothing in the life of man that is more disastrous than the lack of judgment through which a false estimate of facts is made. Sound judgment,” he proceeds, “should be practised in early youth, and will thus be developed by the time manhood is reached. A boy should seek that which is right and avoid that which is worthless, for thus the practice of judging correctly will become second nature with him.”

6. (iv) Boys should be taught to observe temperance in eating and in drinking, in sleeping and in waking, in work and in play, in talking and in keeping silence, throughout the whole period of their instruction.

In this relation the golden rule, “Nothing in excess,” should be dinned into their ears, that they may learn on all occasions to leave off before satiety sets in.

7. (v) Fortitude should be learned by the subduing of self; that is to say, by repressing the desire to play at the wrong time or beyond the proper time, and by bridling impatience, discontent, and anger.

The principle which underlies this is that we should accustom boys to do everything by reason, and nothing under the guidance of impulse. For man is a rational animal, and should therefore be led by reason, and, before action, ought to deliberate how each operation should be ​performed, so that he may really be master of his own actions. Now, since boys are not quite capable of such a deliberate and rational mode of procedure, it will be a great advance towards teaching them fortitude and self-control if they be forced to acquire the habit of performing the will of another in preference to their own, that is to say, to obey their superiors promptly in everything. “Those who train horses aright,” says Lactantius, “first teach them to obey the reins,” and he who wishes to instruct boys should commence by accustoming them to obey his orders. We may indeed cherish a hope that the turmoil with which the world is overwhelmed will be replaced by a better condition of affairs, if, in early youth, men learn to yield to one another and to be guided by reason in all that they do.

8. (vi) The young should learn to practise justice by hurting no man, by giving each his due, by avoiding falsehood and deceit, and by being obliging and agreeable.

Boys must be trained to act in this way, as we said above, by the method prescribed in the following canons.

9. (vii) The kinds of fortitude that are especially necessary to the young are frankness and endurance of toil.

For since life must be spent in intercourse with others and in action, boys must be taught to look men in the face and to meet honest toil without flinching. Otherwise they may become recluses and misanthropes, or idlers and cumberers of the earth. Virtue is practised by deeds and not by words.

10. (viii) Frankness is acquired by constant intercourse with worthy people, and by behaving, while in their presence, in accordance with the precepts that have been given.

Aristotle educated Alexander in such a manner that, when twelve years of age, he could suit himself to every kind of society, to that of kings, of the ambassadors of kings and of nations, of learned and unlearned men, of townsmen, of countrymen, and of artisans, and could ask suitable questions or give suitable answers on any subject that arose in conversation. In order that the ​young who are subjected to our comprehensive scheme of education may learn to imitate this, rules for conversation should be written, and the practice of them, by daily intercourse with tutors, schoolfellows, parents, and servants, should be insisted upon; masters also should take great care to correct any tendency to carelessness, forwardness, boorishness, or coarseness.

11. (ix) Boys will learn to endure toil if they are continually occupied, either with work or with play.

It makes no difference what is done, or why it is done, if only the boy be occupied. Much can be learned in play that will afterwards be of use when the circumstances demand it. It is by working, therefore, that we must learn how to work, just as we learn how to act by acting (as we saw above); and in this way the continued occupations of mind and body, in which, at the same time, all over-pressure must be avoided, will produce an industrious disposition, and make a man so active that sluggish ease will be intolerable to him. Then will be seen the truth of Seneca’s words: “It is toil that nourishes noble minds.”

12. (x) The cognate virtue of justice, or promptness and willingness to serve others, must be diligently cultivated in the young.

The abominable vice of selfishness is inherent in our corrupt nature, and through it each man thinks of nothing but his own welfare, and troubles his head about no one else. This is a great source of confusion in life, since all are occupied with their own affairs and neglect the common good. The true object of life must therefore be diligently instilled into the youth, and they must be taught that we are born not for ourselves alone, but for God and for our neighbour, that is to say, for the human race.

Thus they will become seriously persuaded of this truth and will learn from their boyhood to imitate God, the angels, the sun, and the more noble of things created, that is to say, by desiring and striving to be of service to as many as possible. Thus will the good fortune of private and of public life be assured, since all men will be ​ready to work together for the common good, and to help one another. And they actually will do so if they have been properly taught.

13. (xi) Virtue must be inculcated at a very early stage before vice gets possession of the mind.

For if you do not sow a field with good seed it will produce nothing but weeds of the worst kind. But if you wish to subdue it, you will do so more easily and with a better hope of success if you plough it, sow it, and harrow it in early spring. Indeed, it is of the greatest importance that children be well trained in early youth, since a jar preserves for a long time the odour with which it has been imbued when new.

14. (xii) The virtues are learned by constantly doing what is right.

We have seen in chaps. xx. and xxi. that it is by learning that we find out what we ought to learn, and by acting that we learn to act as we should. So then, as boys easily learn to walk by walking, to talk by talking, and to write by writing, in the same way they will learn obedience by obeying, abstinence by abstaining, truth by speaking the truth, and constancy by being constant. But it is necessary that the child be helped by advice and example at the same time.

15. (xiii) Examples of well-ordered lives, in the persons of their parents, nurses, tutors, and school-fellows, must continually be set before children.

For boys are like apes, and love to imitate whatever they see, whether good or bad, even though not bidden to do so; and on this account they learn to imitate before they learn to use their minds. By “examples,” I mean living ones as well as those taken from books; in fact, living ones are the more important because they make a stronger impression. And therefore, if parents are worthy and careful guardians of domestic discipline, and if tutors are chosen with the greatest possible care, and are men of exceptional virtue, a great advance will have been made towards the proper training of the young in morals.

​16. (xiv) But, in addition to examples, precepts and rules of conduct must be given.

In this way imitation will be supplemented and strengthened (on this point the reader may refer to our remarks in chap. xxi. canon ix.) Rules of life should therefore be collected from Holy Scripture and from the sayings of wise men, and should deal with questions such as: “Why should we strive against envy?” “With what arms should we fortify ourselves against the sorrows and the chances of life?” “How should we observe moderation in joy?” “How should anger be controlled?” “How should illicit love be driven out?” and similar questions, according to the age of the pupil.

17. (xv) Children must be very carefully guarded from bad society, lest they be infected by it.

For, owing to our corrupt nature, evil clings to us readily. The young must therefore be carefully shielded from all sources of corruption, such as evil society, evil conversation, and worthless books (for examples of vice, whether they make their entrance through the eyes or through the ears, are poison to the mind). And finally, sloth should be guarded against, lest through idleness the young be led to evil deeds or contract a tendency to indolence. The important thing is that they be kept continually employed either with work or with play. Idleness should never be permitted.

18. (xvi) Since it is impossible for us to be so watchful that nothing evil can find an entrance, stern discipline is necessary to keep evil tendencies in check.

For our enemy Satan is on the watch not only while we sleep, but also while we wake, and as we sow good seed in the minds of our pupils he contrives to plant his own weeds there as well, and sometimes a corrupt nature brings forth weeds of its own accord, so that these evil dispositions must be kept in check by force. We must therefore strive against them by means of discipline, that is to say, by using blame or punishment, words or blows, as the occasion demands. This punishment should always be administered ​on the spot, that the vice may be choked as soon as it shows itself, or may be, as far as is possible, torn up by the roots. Discipline, therefore, should ever be watchful, not with the view of enforcing application to study (for learning is always attractive to the mind, if it be treated by the right method), but to ensure cleanly morals.

But of discipline we will treat more particularly in chap. xxxi.

CHAPTER XXI

THE METHOD OF THE ARTS

1. “Theory,” says Vives, “is easy and short, but has no result other than the gratification that it affords. Practice, on the other hand, is difficult and prolix, but is of immense utility.” Since this is so, we should diligently seek out a method by which the young may be easily led to the practical application of natural forces, which is to be found in the arts.

2. Art primarily requires three things: (1) A model or a conception; that is to say, an external form which the artist may examine and then try to imitate. (2) The material on which the new form is to be impressed. (3) The instruments by the aid of which the work is accomplished.

3. But when the instruments, the materials, and the model have been provided, three more things are necessary before we can learn an art: (1) a proper use of the materials; (2) skilled guidance; (3) frequent practice. That is to say, the pupil should be taught when and how to use his materials; he should be given assistance when using them that he may not make mistakes, or that he may be corrected if he do; and he should not leave off making mistakes and being corrected until he can work correctly and quickly.

4. With respect to these points eleven canons must be observed: six on the use of materials; three on guidance; and two on practice.

​5. (i) What has to be done must be learned by practice.

Artisans do not detain their apprentices with theories, but set them to do practical work at an early stage; thus they learn to forge by forging, to carve by carving, to paint by painting, and to dance by dancing. In schools, therefore, let the students learn to write by writing, to talk by talking, to sing by singing, and to reason by reasoning. In this way schools will become work-shops humming with work, and students whose efforts prove successful will experience the truth of the proverb: “We give form to ourselves and to our materials at the same time.”

6. (ii) A definite model of that which has to be made must always be provided.

This the student should first examine, and then imitate, as though he were following in the footsteps of a guide. For he who neither knows what has to be done nor how to do it, is unable to produce anything of himself, but must have a model placed before him. Indeed it is sheer cruelty to force any one to do what you wish, while he is ignorant what your wishes are; to demand, that is to say, that he form straight lines, right angles, or perfect circles, unless you first give him a ruler, a square, and a pair of compasses, and explain their use to him. Further, great care should be taken to provide in the school-room formulæ for or models of everything that has to be made, and these, whether drawings and diagrams, or rules and models, should be correct, definite, and simple; easy both to understand and to imitate. There will then be no absurdity in demanding of a man that he see, when provided with a light; that he walk, when he already stands on his feet; or that he use the tools that are already in his hands.

7. (iii) The use of instruments should be shown in practice and not by words; that is to say, by example rather than by precept.

It is many years since Quintilian said: “Through precepts the way is long and difficult, while through examples it is short and practicable.” But alas, how little ​heed the ordinary schools pay to this advice. The very beginners in grammar are so overwhelmed by precepts, rules, exceptions to the rules, and exceptions to the exceptions, that for the most part they do not know what they are doing, and are quite stupefied before they begin to understand anything. Mechanics do not begin by drumming rules into their apprentices. They take them into the workshop and bid them look at the work that has been produced, and then, when they wish to imitate this (for man is an imitative animal), they place tools in their hands and show them how they should be held and used. Then, if they make mistakes, they give them advice and correct them, often more by example than by mere words, and, as the facts show, the novices easily succeed in their imitation. For there is great truth in that saying of the Germans, “A good leader finds a good follower.” Very apposite, too, is the remark of Terence, “Do you go before; I will follow.” This is the way, namely, by imitating, and without any laborious rules, that children learn to walk, to run, to talk, and to play. Rules are like thorns to the understanding, and to grasp their meaning needs both attention and ability, while even the dullest students are aided by example. No one has ever mastered any language or art by precept alone; while by practice this is possible, éven without precept.

8. (iv) Practice should commence with the rudiments and not with ambitious works.

A carpenter does not begin by teaching his apprentice to build turrets, but first shows him how to hold the axe, to cut down trees, to shape planks, to bore holes, and to fasten beams together. A painter does not make his pupil commence by painting portraits, but teaches him how to mix colours, to hold the brush, and to make lines; then to attempt rough outlines, and so on. He who teaches a boy how to read explains to him, not the contents of the book, but the names and nature of the letters, and shows him how they can be joined together into syllables; then he proceeds to words, and then to sentences. In the ​same way the beginner in grammar should learn, first how to inflect single words, then how to join two together. Then he may advance to simple and compound sentences, and so on till he reach continuous prose. So too in dialectic. The student should first learn to distinguish things and the concepts of things by means of their genera and species; then to classify them afresh, with respect to some other common quality (for such links exist between all things); then to define and distribute them; then to estimate the value of the things and their concepts in combination, seeking out the what? the whence? and the why? and whether it be necessary or contingent. When he has had sufficient practice in this, he may proceed to ratiocination and seek how to draw conclusions from given premises, and finally he may essay discursive reasoning or the complete conduct of disputations. The same course may with advantage be followed in rhetoric. The student should first devote some time to the collection of synonyms, and may then learn to add epithets to nouns, verbs, and adverbs. He may then proceed to the use of antithesis, and later on to that of periphrasis. Then he may substitute figurative words for the originals, alter the order of the words for the sake of euphony, and adorn a simple sentence with all the figures of speech. Finally, when thoroughly versed in all these several points, and not sooner, he may proceed to the composition of a complete discourse. If any one advance step by step in any art, as here indicated, it is impossible that he should not make progress.

The basis of the foregoing was discussed in chap. xvii. Principle 4.

9. (v) Beginners should at first practise on a material that is familiar to them.

This rule we obtain from the 9th Principle of the 17th chapter, and from the 6th Corollary of the 4th Principle. Its meaning is that students should not be overburdened with matters that are unsuitable to their age, comprehension, and present condition, since otherwise they will spend their time in wrestling with shadows. For example, ​when a Polish boy is learning to read or to write his letters he should not be taught to do so from a book written in Latin, Greek, or Arabic, but from one written in his own language, that he may understand what he is doing. Again, if a boy is to understand the use of the rules of rhetoric, the examples on which he is made to practise them should not be taken from Virgil or from Cicero, or from theological, political, or medical writers, but should refer to the objects that surround him, to his books, to his clothes, to trees, houses, and schools. It will also be of use if the examples that are taken to illustrate the first rule be retained, although familiar, to illustrate the remainder. In dialectic, for example, a tree may be taken, and its genus, its species, its relations to other objects, its characteristic peculiarities and the logical definition and distribution of the term may be treated of. We may then proceed to the various ways in which a statement may be made about a tree. Finally, we may show how, by a perfect train of reasoning, and by taking the facts already ascertained as our starting-point, we may discover and demonstrate other properties of a tree. In this way, if, in each case, the use of the rules be illustrated by the same familiar example, the boy will easily master their application to all other subjects.

10. (vi) At first the prescribed form should be imitated with exactness. Later on more freedom may be allowed.

A form will be expressed with more exactness in proportion as care is taken to make it resemble its original. Thus coins that are struck by one die are exactly like the die and one another. So also with books printed from metal type, and with casts made in wax, plaster, or metal. In all other artistic operations, therefore, as far as is possible, any imitation (at any rate the first) should be an exact copy of its original, until the hand, the mind, and the tongue gain more confidence, and can produce good imitations by working freely on their own lines. For instance, those who learn writing take a thin and transparent sheet of paper, place it over the copy that they wish to imitate, and thus can easily form the letters that show through. Or the ​characters may be printed very faintly on a white page, so that the pupil may go over them with pen and ink, and in this way may easily acquire the habit of shaping them. The same thing holds good in style, if any construction or sentence extracted from a classic writer have to be imitated. If the original phrase be “Rich in possessions,” the boy should be made to imitate it by saying, “Rich in coins,” “Rich in moneys,” “Rich in flocks,” “Rich in vineyards.” When Cicero says, “In the opinion of the most learned men, Eudemus easily holds the first place in astrology,” this may be copied with very little alteration as “In the opinion of the greatest orators, Cicero easily holds the first place in eloquence,” “In the opinion of the whole Church, St. Paul easily holds the first place in Apostleship.” So too in logic, if the well-known dilemma be given: It is either day or night. But it is night; therefore it is not day; the boy may learn to imitate it by similarly opposing contradictory conceptions to one another. As, “He is either unlearned or learned. But he is unlearned; therefore he is not learned”; “Cain was either pious or impious, but he was not pious”; and so on.

11. (vii) The models of the objects that have to be produced must be as perfect as is possible, so that if any one exercise himself sufficiently in imitating them it will be possible for him to become perfect in his art.

It is impossible to draw straight lines with a curved ruler, and in the same way a good copy cannot be made from a bad model. Great care should therefore be taken that models be prepared of everything that is to be done in school, or indeed in life, and that these be exact, simple, and easy to imitate. They may be either models, pictures and drawings, or precepts and rules; but all must be very short, very clear, self-evident, and absolutely correct.

12. (viii) The first attempt at imitation should be as accurate as possible, that not the smallest deviation from the model be made.

That is to say, as far as is possible. For whatever comes first is, as it were, the foundation of that which follows. If ​the foundation be firm, a solid edifice can be constructed upon it, but if it be weak this is impossible. According to the observations of physicians, the initial defects of digestion cannot be repaired later on, and similarly in any operation an error at the beginning vitiates all that follows. For this reason Timotheus the musician used to demand twice as large a fee from those pupils who had learned the rudiments of their art elsewhere, saying that his labour was twofold, as he had first to get them out of the bad habits that they had acquired, and then to teach them correctly. Those, therefore, who are learning any art should take care to make themselves masters of the rudiments by imitating their copies accurately. This difficulty once overcome, the rest follows of itself, just as a city lies at the mercy of foes when its gates are broken in. All haste should be avoided, lest we proceed to advanced work before the elementary stages have been mastered. He goes fast enough who never quits the road, and a delay which is caused by obtaining a thorough grip of first principles is really no delay, but an advance towards mastering what follows with ease, speed, and accuracy.

13. (ix) Errors must be corrected by the master on the spot; but precepts, that is to say the rules, and the exceptions to the rules, must be given at the same time.

Hitherto we have urged that the arts be taught rather by example than by precept: we now add that precepts and rules must be given as well, that they may guide the operations and prevent error. That is to say, the less obvious points of the model should be clearly explained, and it should be made evident how the operation should begin, what it should aim at, and how that aim can be realised. Reasons should also be given for each rule. In this way a thorough knowledge of the art, and confidence and exactness in imitating, will be attained.

But these rules should be as short and as simple as possible, since we do not want to grow gray while acquiring them. When once mastered they should be of perpetual use, even when laid aside, just as knee-bands are of ​use to a child who is learning to walk, and, though they are afterwards discarded, the advantage derived from them remains.

14. (x) The perfect teaching of art is based on synthesis and analysis.

We have already shown (chap. xviii. Principle 5) by examples taken from nature and the workshop that in this relation synthesis is more important. The following points in addition will show that synthetic exercises should generally come first: (1) We should always commence with what is easy, and our own efforts are easier to understand than those of other people. (2) Writers take pains to conceal the artifices by which their results are obtained, so that at first the student finds difficulty in understanding what he sees, or fails to do so altogether. This difficulty would be removed if he began by practising on his own attempts, which are void of artifice. (3) The chief thing aimed at should be given the chief place in practice, and our real aim is to accustom the student of art to produce original work, and not merely to copy what is placed before him (see chapter xviii. Principle 5).

15. For all this, the accurate analysis of the work of others must not be neglected. It is only by continually traversing it that we get to know a road, its by-paths, and its cross-roads. Besides, the variety that exists in nature is so great that it is impossible for rules to cover it or for one mind to master it. Many processes require many rules to express them, and these we can only learn if we analyse and study, and by imitation and emulation put ourselves in a position to produce similar results.

16. It is our wish then that in each art complete and exact models or examples of everything that can be produced in that art be supplied to the student. Precepts also and rules should be given him to help him to carry out the processes, to guide his efforts at imitation, to show him how to avoid making faults, and to correct them when made. Then other and different models should be given him, and these he should learn to classify and compare ​with the models that he has already used, and by copying a model that is like one previously used to produce work that resembles the original. After this, the finished works of other artists (who must be well known) may be examined and analysed in accordance with the models and rules that are already familiar. In this way the student will learn to employ the rules with greater ease, and will acquire the art of concealing his art. Only after a course of exercises of this kind will he be in the position to criticise artistic productions, whether his own or those of others.

17. (xi) These exercises must be continued until artistic production becomes second nature.

For it is practice, and nothing else, that produces an artist.

CHAPTER XX

THE METHOD OF THE SCIENCES, SPECIFICALLY

1. We must now collect together the scattered observations that we have made on the proper teaching of the sciences, of the arts, of morality, and of piety. By proper teaching I mean teaching that combines ease, thoroughness, and rapidity.

2. Science, or the knowledge of nature, consists of an internal perception, and needs the same accessories as the external perception of the eye, namely, an object to observe, and light by which to observe it. If these be given, perception will follow. The eye of the inner perception is the mind or the understanding, the object is all that lies within or without our apprehension, while the light is the necessary attention. But, as in the case of external perception a definite procedure is necessary in order to apprehend things as they are, so with internal perception a certain method is necessary if things are to be presented to the mind in such a way that it can grasp them and assimilate them with ease.

3. The youth who wishes to penetrate the mysteries of the sciences must carefully observe four rules:

(i) He must keep the eye of his mind pure.

(ii) He must see that the object be brought near to it.

(iii) He must pay attention.

(iv) He must proceed from one object to another in ​accordance with a suitable method. For thus he will apprehend everything surely and easily.

4. Over the amount of ability that we possess we have no control, for God has portioned out this mirror of the understanding, this inner eye, according to His will. But it lies in our power to prevent it from growing dusty or dim. By dust, I mean the idle, useless, and empty occupations of the mind. For our mind is in constant activity, like a continually running mill-stone, and is supplied by its servants, the external senses, with material from every side. But unless the chief inspector, the on, be continually on the watch, worthless material is supplied, such as chaff, straw, or sand, instead of corn or wheat. Thus it comes to pass that, as in the case of a mill, every corner is filled with dust. This inner mill, therefore, the mind (which is also a mirror) will be kept free from dust, if the young be kept away from worthless occupations and be skilfully trained to like worthy and useful things.

5. In order that the mirror may duly receive the images of the objects, it is necessary that these latter be solid and visible, and be also placed suitably before the eyes. Clouds and similar objects that possess little consistency make but a slight impression on a mirror, while objects that are not present make none at all. Those things, therefore, that are placed before the intelligence of the young, must be real things and not the shadows of things. I repeat, they must be things; and by the term I mean determinate, real, and useful things that can make an impression on the senses and on the imagination. But they can only make this impression when brought sufficiently near.

6. From this a golden rule for teachers may be derived. Everything should, as far as is possible, be placed before the senses. Everything visible should be brought before the organ of sight, everything audible before that of hearing. Odours should be placed before the sense of smell, and things that are tastable and tangible before the sense of taste and of touch respectively. If an object can make ​an impression on several senses at once, it should be brought into contact with several, though with the limitations imposed in the seventh Principle of chap. viii.

7. For this there are three cogent reasons. Firstly, the commencement of knowledge must always come from the senses (for the understanding possesses nothing that it has not first derived from the senses). Surely, then, the beginning of wisdom should consist, not in the mere learning the names of things, but in the actual perception of the things themselves! It is when the thing has been grasped by the senses that language should fulfil its function of explaining it still further.

8. Secondly, the truth and certainty of science depend more on the witness of the senses than on anything else. For things impress themselves directly on the senses, but on the understanding only mediately and through the senses. This is evident from the fact that belief is at once accorded to knowledge derived from the senses, while an appeal is always made to them from a priori reasoning and from the testimony of others. We do not trust a conclusion derived from reasoning unless it can be verified by a display of examples (the trustworthiness of which depends on sensuous perception). No one could have such confidence in the testimony of another person as to disbelieve the experience of his own senses. Science, then, increases in certainty in proportion as it depends on sensuous perception. It follows, therefore, that if we wish to implant a true and certain knowledge of things in our pupils, we must take especial care that everything be learned by means of actual observation and sensuous perception.

9. Thirdly, since the senses are the most trusty servants of the memory, this method of sensuous perception, if universally applied, will lead to the permanent retention of knowledge that has once been acquired. For instance, if I have once tasted sugar, seen a camel, heard a nightingale sing, or been in Rome, and have on each occasion attentively impressed the fact on my memory, the incidents will ​remain fresh and permanent. We find, accordingly, that children can easily learn Scriptural and secular stories from pictures. Indeed, he who has once seen a rhinoceros (even in a picture) or been present at a certain occurrence, can picture the animal to himself and retain the event in his memory with greater ease than if they had been described to him six hundred times. Hence the saying of Plautus: “An eye-witness is worth more than ten ear-witnesses.” Horace also says: “What is entrusted to the fickle ears makes less impression on the mind than things which are actually presented to the eyes and which the spectator stores up for himself.”

In the same manner, whoever has once seen a dissection of the human body will understand and remember the relative position of its parts with far greater certainty than if he had read the most exhaustive treatises on anatomy, but had never actually seen a dissection performed. Hence the saying, “Seeing is believing.”

10. If the objects themselves cannot be procured, representations of them may be used. Copies or models may be constructed for teaching purposes, and the same principle may be adopted by botanists, geometricians, zoologists, and geographers, who should illustrate their descriptions by engravings of the objects described. The same thing should be done in books on physics and elsewhere. For example, the human body will be well explained by ocular demonstration if the following plan be adopted. A skeleton should be procured (either such an one as is usually kept in universities, or one made of wood), and on this framework should be placed the muscles, sinews, nerves, veins, arteries, as well as the intestines, the lungs, the heart, the diaphragm, and the liver. These should be made of leather and stuffed with wool, and should be of the right size and in the right place, while on each organ should be written its name and its function. If you take the student of medicine to this construction and explain each part to him separately, he will grasp all the details without any effort, and from that time forth will ​understand the mechanism of his own body. For every branch of knowledge similar constructions (that is to say, images of things which cannot be procured in the original) should be made, and should be kept in the schools ready for use. It is true that expense and labour will be necessary to produce these models, but the result will amply reward the effort.

11. If any be uncertain if all things can be placed before the senses in this way, even things spiritual and things absent (things in heaven, or in hell, or beyond the sea), let him remember that all things have been harmoniously arranged by God in such a manner that the higher in the scale of existence can be represented by the lower, the absent by the present, and the invisible by the visible. This can be seen in the Macromicrocosmus of Robert Flutt,³⁰ in which the origin of the winds, of rain, and of thunder is described in such a way that the reader can visualise it. Nor is there any doubt that even greater concreteness and ease of demonstration than is here displayed might be attained.

12. So much of the presentation of objects to the senses. We must now speak of the light, the absence of which renders the presentation of objects to the eyes useless. This light of the teaching art is attention, and by its means the learner can keep his mind from wandering and can take in everything that is put before him. It is impossible for any man to see an object in the dark, or if his eyes be closed, no matter how near to him it may be; and in the same way, if you talk to one who is not attending, or show him anything, you will make no impression on his senses. This we can observe in the case of those who, while lost in thought, do not notice what is going on before their eyes. He, therefore, who wishes to show anything to another at night must provide light, and must polish the object so that it shines; and in the same way a master, if he wish to illumine with knowledge a pupil shrouded in the darkness of ignorance, must first excite his attention, that he may drink in information with a greedy mind. ​How this can be done we have shown in the 17th chapter, and in the first Principle of the 19th chapter.

13. So much of the light. We will now speak of the mode in which objects must be presented to the senses, if the impression is to be distinct. This can be readily understood if we consider the processes of actual vision. If the object is to be clearly seen it is necessary: (1) that it be placed before the eyes; (2) not far off, but at a reasonable distance; (3) not on one side, but straight before the eyes; (4) and so that the front of the object be not turned away from, but directed towards, the observer; (5) that the eyes first take in the object as a whole; (6) and then proceed to distinguish the parts; (7) inspecting these in order from the beginning to the end; (8) that attention be paid to each and every part; (9) until they are all grasped by means of their essential attributes. If these requisites be properly observed, vision takes place successfully; but if one be neglected its success is only partial.

14. For instance, if any one wish to read a letter that has been sent him by a friend, it is necessary: (1) that it be presented to the eyes (for if it be not seen, how can it be read?); (2) that it be placed at a suitable distance from the eyes (for if it be too far off, the words cannot be distinguished); (3) that it be directly in front of the eyes (for if it be on one side, it will be confusedly seen); (4) that it be turned the right way up (for if a letter or a book be presented to the eyes upside down or on its side, it cannot be read); (5) the general characteristics of the letter, such as the address, the writer, and the date must be seen first (for unless these facts be known, the particular items of the letter cannot be properly understood); (6) then the remainder of the letter must be read, that nothing be omitted (otherwise the contents will not all be known, and perhaps the most important point will be missed); (7) it must be read in the right order (if one sentence be read here and another there, the sense will be confused); (8) each sentence must be mastered before the next is com​menced (for if the whole be read hurriedly, some useful point may easily escape the mind); (9) finally, when the whole has been carefully perused, the reader may proceed to distinguish between those points that are necessary and those that are superfluous.

15. These points should be observed by those who teach the sciences, and may be expressed in nine very useful precepts.

(i) Whatever is to be known must be taught.

Unless that which is to be known be placed before a pupil, how is he to acquire a knowledge of it? Therefore let those who teach beware of concealing anything from their pupils, whether of intent, do the envious and dishonest, or through carelessness, as is the case with those who perform their duties in a perfunctory manner. The two things necessary are honesty and hard work.

16. (ii) Whatever is taught should be taught as being of practical application in every-day life and of some definite use.

That is to say, the pupil should understand that what he learns is not taken out of some Utopia or borrowed from Platonic Ideas, but is one of the facts which surround us, and that a fitting acquaintance with it will be of great service in life. In this way his energy and his accuracy will be increased.

17. (iii) Whatever is taught should be taught straightforwardly, and not in a complicated manner.

This means that we must look straight at objects and not squint, for in that case the eyes do not see that at which they look, but rather distort and confuse it. Objects should be placed before the eyes of the student in their true character, and not shrouded in words, metaphors, or hyperboles. These devices have their use if the object be to exaggerate or to detract from, to praise or to blame what is already known. But when knowledge is being acquired they should be avoided and the facts should be set forth plainly.

18. (iv) Whatever is taught must be taught with reference ​to its true nature and its origin; that is to say, through its causes.

This method of cognition is the best if the true nature of a fact is to be learned. For if its true nature be not made evident, this is not cognition but error. The true nature of a fact lies in the process that brought it into being. If it appear to contain elements not accounted for by that process, it is evident that there is some misapprehension. Now everything is brought into existence by its causes. Therefore to explain the causes of anything is equivalent to making a true exposition of that thing’s nature, in accordance with the principles: “Knowledge consists in having a firm grip of causes,” and “Causes are the guides of the understanding.” Objects can thus be best, easiest, and most certainly cognised through a knowledge of the processes that produced them. If a man wish to read a letter he holds it as it was written, since it is a difficult thing to read a document that is inverted, or on its side, and in the same way, if a fact be explained by means of the process that gave it birth, it will be easily and surely understood. If, however, the teacher reverse the order of nature, he is certain to confuse the student. Therefore, the method employed in teaching should be based on the method of nature. That which precedes should be taken first, and that which follows last.

19. (v) If anything is to be learned, its general principles must first be explained. Its details may then be considered, and not till then.

The reasons for this have been given in chap. xvi. Principle 6. We give a general notion of an object when we explain it by means of its essential nature and its accidental qualities. The essential nature is unfolded by the questions what? of what kind? and why? Under the question what? are included the name, the genus, the function, and the end. Under the question of what kind? comes the form of the object, or the mode in which it is fitted to its end. Under the question why? the efficient ​or causal force by which an object is made suitable to its end. For example, did I wish to give a student a general notion of a man, I should say: Man is (1) the chief creation of God, and destined for dominion over other creatures; (2) endowed with freedom of choice and action; (3) and on that account provided with the light of reason, that he may direct his choice and his actions with wisdom. This is but a general notion of man, but it goes to the root of the matter and says everything about him that is essential. To these you may, if you like, add some of his accidental qualities, still keeping to generalities, and this must be done by asking the questions from what origin? whence? when? You may then proceed to his parts, the body and the soul. The nature of the body can be demonstrated through the anatomy of its organs; that of the soul by examining the faculties of which it consists. All these points must be taken in their proper order.

20. (vi) All the parts of an object, even the smallest, and without a single exception, must be learned with reference to their order, their position, and their connection with one another.

Nothing exists in vain, and sometimes the strength of the larger parts depends on that of the smallest. Certain it is that in a clock, if one pin be broken or bent, or moved out of its place, the whole machine will stop. Similarly, in a living body, the loss of one organ may cause life to cease, and in a sentence it is often on the smallest words, such as prepositions and conjunctions, that the whole sense depends. Perfect knowledge of an object can therefore only be attained by acquiring a knowledge of the nature and function of each of its parts.

21. (vii) All things must be taught in due succession, and not more than one thing should be taught at one time. The organ of vision is unable to take in two or three objects at one time (certain it is that he who reads a book cannot look at two pages at once, nay, cannot even see two lines, though they lie quite close together, nor two words, nor two letters, otherwise than successively); and in the ​same way the mind can only grasp one thing at a time. We should therefore make a distinct break in our progress from one thing to another, that we may not overburden the mind.

22. (viii) We should not leave any subject until it is thoroughly understood.

Nothing can be done in a moment. For every process involves motion, and motion implies successive stages. The pupil should therefore not pass on from any point in a science until he has thoroughly mastered it and is conscious that he has done so. The methods to be employed are emphatic teaching, examination, and iteration, until the desired result is attained. This we have pointed out in chap. xviii. Principle 10.

23. (ix) Stress should be laid on the differences which exist between things, in order that what knowledge of them is acquired may be clear and distinct.

Much meaning lies concealed in that celebrated saying: “He who distinguishes well is a good teacher.” For too many facts overwhelm a student, and too great a variety confuses him. Remedies must therefore be applied: in the first case order, by means of which one thing may be taken after another; in the second, a careful consideration of the differences that exist in nature, that it may always be evident in what respects one thing differs from another. This is the only method that can give distinct, clear, and certain knowledge; since the variety and actuality of natural objects depend on their distinctive attributes, as we have hinted in chap. xviii. Principle 6.

24. Now it is impossible that all teachers, when they enter on their profession, should be possessed of the requisite skill, and it is therefore necessary that the sciences which are taught in schools be mapped out in accordance with the foregoing laws. If this be done it will be difficult for any teacher to miss his mark. For, if the laws be rigorously observed, it is beyond question that any man who is once admitted into the royal palace and is allotted a certain space of time can easily and without any trouble ​master its whole contents, its pictures, statues, carpets, and other ornaments; and just as easy will it be for a youth who is admitted to the theatre of this world to penetrate with his mental vision the secrets of nature, and from that time forward to move among the works of God and of man with his eyes opened.

CHAPTER XIX

THE PRINCIPLES OF CONCISENESS AND RAPIDITY IN TEACHING

1. “But these projects are too wearisome and too comprehensive,” many readers will here remark. “What a number of teachers and of libraries, and how much labour will be necessary in order that thorough instruction may be given in one subject!” I answer: This is undoubtedly so, and unless our labours are shortened the task will be no easy one; for this art of ours is as long, as wide, and as deep as the universe that has to be subdued by our minds. But who does not know that diffuse and difficult things can be brought into a small compass? who is ignorant that weavers can weave together a hundred thousand threads with the greatest rapidity, and can produce from these a great variety of stuffs? or that millers can grind thousands of grains with the greatest ease, and can separate the bran from the flour with great exactness and without any difficulty? Every one knows that engineers, without the slightest trouble and with comparatively small machines, can raise enormous weights, and that a weight of one ounce, if at a sufficient distance from the fulcrum of a lever, can counterbalance many pounds.

We see, therefore, that great achievements are more often a question of skill than of strength. Are learned men then to be the only people who do not know how to conduct their affairs with skill? Surely shame should ​compel us to emulate the inventive spirit of other professions and find a remedy for the difficulties with which schools have hitherto struggled.

2. It is impossible to find a remedy until we have discovered the diseases and their causes. What can it be that has impeded the efforts of the schools and hindered their success to such an extent that most men during their whole, stay at school do not traverse the whole range of the sciences and arts, while some of them scarcely even cross the threshold?

3. The causes of this are undoubtedly the following: firstly, no fixed landmarks were set up, which might serve as goals to be reached by the scholars at the end of each year, month, or day, and there was a complete lack of system.

4. Secondly, the roads that would infallibly lead to these goals were not pointed out.

5. Thirdly, things that should naturally be associated were not joined together, but were kept apart. For instance, the scholars in elementary schools were taught to read, but were not given lessons in writing till some months afterwards. In the Latin-School boys were allowed to spend some years in learning words without any reference to their meanings, so that their boyhood was wholly occupied by grammatical studies, and all philosophic interest was reserved for a later period. In the same way the scholars were only allowed to learn, never to teach, though all these things (reading and writing, words and things, learning and teaching) should be associated, just as, in running, the raising of the feet is combined with the setting of them on the ground again, or, in conversation, listening is combined with answering, or, in playing ball, throwing is combined with catching.

6. Fourthly, the arts and the sciences were scarcely ever taught as part of an encyclopædic whole, but were dealt out piece-meal. This has been the reason why, in the eyes of the scholars, they seemed like a heap of wood or of faggots, in which the exact connection and combining-​links can scarcely be discerned. Thus it came to pass that some grasped one fact, others another, and that none received a really thorough and universal education.

7. Fifthly, many different methods were employed. Each school and even each teacher used a different one. What was worse, teachers would use one method in one subject or language, and another in another, and, worst of all, even in one individual subject they varied their method, so that the scholar scarcely understood in what way he was expected to learn. This was the cause of the many delays that took place, and of the lassitude of the scholar, who had frequently no desire even to attempt new branches of study.

8. Sixthly, no method was known by which instruction could be given to all the pupils in a class at the same time; the individual only was taught. With a large number of pupils this must have been an impossible task for the teacher. The pupils also must have found it very wearisome and extremely irksome, if each had to go on preparing work until his turn arrived.

9. Seventhly, if there were several teachers, this was a fresh source of confusion; since each hour some new subject was introduced. Not to mention the fact that a diversity of teachers tends to distract the mind quite as much as a diversity of books.

10. Finally, both in school and out of it, the scholars had perfect freedom as regards the books they read, and the teachers gave them no assistance in their choice. For all were imbued with the idea that to read many authors afforded many opportunities of making progress, whereas such diversity produced nothing but distraction. It was not surprising, therefore, that very few mastered all the branches of study. The wonder was that any one was able to find his way out of such a labyrinth, and indeed only the most gifted succeeded in doing so.

11. For the future, therefore, hindrances and delays of this sort must be set aside, and we must make straight for our goal, neglecting everything that is not of immediate service. ​As the proverb says: “Where small means suffice, great should not be used.”

12. Let us choose the sun for imitation, since it affords a striking example of the operations of nature. Its functions are laborious and almost unlimited (namely, to send forth its rays over the whole world and to supply all the elements, minerals, plants, and animals, of which countless species exist, with light, warmth, life, and strength), but it proves equal to them all, and every year fulfils the circle of its duties in the most admirable manner.

13. We will therefore examine its various principles of action, with reference to the above-mentioned desiderata of school management.

(i) The sun does not occupy itself with any single object, animal, or tree; but lights and warms the whole earth at once.

(ii) It gives light to all things with the same rays; covers all things with moisture by the same processes of evaporation and condensation; it causes the same wind to blow on all things; it puts all things in motion by the same warmth and cold.

(iii) It causes spring, summer, autumn, and winter to make their appearance in all lands at the same time. At the same time, through its agency, the trees grow green, blossom, and bear fruit (though naturally some do so earlier than others).

(iv) It always preserves the same order; one day resembles another, one year resembles the next. It always operates on one object by the same method.

(v) It produces everything from its elementary form, and from no other source.

(vi) It produces in combination everything that ought to be combined; wood with its bark and its core, a flower with its leaves, a fruit with its skin and its stalk.

(vii) It causes everything to develope through definite stages, so that one stage prepares the way for the next, and each stage follows naturally from the previous one.

(viii) Finally, it brings into existence nothing that is ​useless, or destroys such an object if it be accidentally produced.

14. In imitation of this

(i) There should only be one teacher in each school, or at any rate in each class.

(ii) Only one author should be used for each subject studied.

(iii) The same exercise should be given to the whole class.

(iv) All subjects and languages should be taught by the same method.

(v) Everything should be taught thoroughly, briefly, and pithily, that the understanding may be, as it were, unlocked by one key, and may then unravel fresh difficulties of its own accord.

(vi) All things that are naturally connected ought to be taught in combination.

(vii) Every subject should be taught in definitely graded steps, that the work of one day may thus expand that of the previous day, and lead up to that of the morrow.

(viii) And finally, everything that is useless should be invariably discarded.

15. If these reforms could be introduced into schools, there is no doubt that the whole circle of the sciences might be completed with an ease that surpasses our expectation, just as the sun completes its circling course through the heavens every year.

Let us therefore get to work and see if these counsels can be carried into effect, and how the difficulties that hinder their realisation can be overcome.

First Problem

How can a single teacher teach a number of boys, no matter how great, at one time?

16. I maintain that it is not only possible for one teacher to teach several hundred scholars at once, but that it is also essential; since for both the teachers and their ​pupils it is by far the most advantageous system. The larger the number of pupils that he sees before him the greater the interest the teacher will take in his work (just as the hands of a miner tremble with excitement when he discovers a rich vein of ore); and the keener the teacher himself, the greater the enthusiasm that his pupils will display. To the scholars, in the same way, the presence of a number of companions will be productive not only of utility but also of enjoyment (for it gives pleasure to all to have companions in their labours); since they will mutually stimulate and assist one another. Indeed for boys of this age emulation is by far the best stimulus. Again, if a teacher’s class be small, this point or that may escape the ears of all his pupils. But many hear him at once, each one grasps as much as he can, and then, when the lesson is repeated, all comes back into their minds again, since one mind has an invigorating effect on another and one memory on another. In short, as a baker makes a large quantity of bread by a single kneading of the dough and a single heating of the oven, as a brick-maker burns many bricks at one time, as a printer prints hundreds of thousands of books from the same set of type, so should a teacher be able to teach a very large number of pupils at once and without the slightest inconvenience. Do we not see that one trunk can support innumerable branches and supply them with sap, and that the sun is able to vivify the whole earth?

17. How is this to be done? Let us take our former examples, and watch the processes of nature. The trunk does not extend to the outermost branches, but remaining in its place supplies sap to the large ones that are in immediate connection with it, these pass it on to others, and these again in their turn to others, and so on until the smallest twigs have been reached. In the same way the sun does not illumine each individual tree, plant, or animal, but, sending forth its rays from on high, lights up half the world at once, and thus supplies each creature with light and warmth for its own use. We should here ​notice that the sun’s action may be assisted by the lie of the ground. Valleys and depressions, for instance, collect the rays and thus attain a higher degree of warmth.

18. If matters be arranged in the following manner, one teacher will easily be able to cope with very large number of scholars. That is to say

(i) If he divide the whole body into classes, groups of ten, for example, each of which should be controlled by a scholar who is, in his turn, controlled by one of higher rank, and so on.

(ii) If he never give individual instruction, either privately out of school or publicly in school, but teach all the pupils at one and the same time. He should, therefore, never step up to any one scholar or allow any one of them to come to him separately, but should remain in his seat, where he can be seen and heard by all, just as the sun sends forth its rays over all things. The scholars, on the other hand, must direct their ears, eyes, and thoughts towards him and attend to everything that he tells them by word of mouth or explains by means of his hand or of diagrams. Thus, with a single blow, not one but many flies are killed.

19. (iii) With a little skill it will be possible to arrest the attention of the pupils, collectively and individually, and to imbue them with the notion that (as really is the case) the mouth of the teacher is a spring from which streams of knowledge issue and flow over them, and that, whenever they see this spring open, they should place their attention, like a cistern, beneath it, and thus allow nothing that flows forth to escape. The teacher also should take the greatest care never to speak unless all his pupils are listening, nor to teach unless they are all attending. In this connection that remark of Seneca’s is very apposite: “We should speak to none who is unwilling to listen.” Solomon also says: “Wisdom is before the face of him that hath understanding” (Prov. xvii. 24). That is to say, we should talk not to the winds but to the ears of men.

​20. It is not solely by means of the leaders or of the other boys in charge, that attention can be awakened and retained. The teacher is himself the most important factor, and will succeed in his efforts if he observe eight rules.

(i) If, when he teaches, he take the trouble continually to introduce something that is entertaining as well as of practical use; for in this way the interest of the scholars will be excited and their attention will be arrested.

(ii) If, at the commencement of any new subject, he excite the interest of his pupils, either by placing it before them in an attractive manner or by asking them questions. These latter may either refer to what has preceded, and thus illustrate the connection between it and the subject in question, or to the new branch of study. For, if the scholar’s ignorance of the subject be mercilessly exposed, he may be fired with a desire to master it and understand it thoroughly.

(iii) If he stand on an elevated platform, and, keeping all the scholars in his sight at once, allow none of them to do anything but attend and look at him.

(iv) If he aid their attention by appealing to the senses, especially to that of sight, whenever it is possible (as we have shown above, chap. xvii., in the third rule of the eighth Principle).

(v) If he occasionally interrupt his explanation with the words: Tell me (mentioning some boy), what have I just said? Repeat that sentence! Tell me; how have I reached this point? and remarks of a similar kind, the exact nature of which must depend on the class that he is teaching. If any pupil be found who is not paying attention, he should be reprimanded or punished on the spot. In this way the scholars will be made keen and attentive.

(vi) Similarly, if he ask one boy, and he hesitate, he should pass on to a second, a third, a tenth, or a thirtieth, and ask for the answer without repeating the question. ​The result of this will be that all listen carefully to what is said to one of their number, and apply it to their own use.

(vii) If some of the boys cannot answer a question he should ask the whole class, and then, in the presence of the rest, praise those who answer best, that their example may serve to stimulate the others. If any pupil make a mistake he should be corrected, but at the same time the cause of the error (which a clever teacher will have no difficulty in discovering) should be made clear and the necessity for its recurrence obviated. It can scarcely be realised what an assistance to rapid progress this will be.

(viii) Finally, when the lesson is over, the scholars should be given leave to ask questions on any point that they wish explained, either in the present lesson or in a previous one. Private questioning should not be permitted. Each scholar who wishes to ask a question should either ask the teacher openly or get the leader of his division to do so (if this latter is unable to solve the difficulty himself). In this way the whole class will be benefited, and as much by the question as by the answer. If any scholar help to illustrate an important point by the intelligence of his questions, he should be commended, in order that the rest may thereby be incited to industry and keenness.

21. Such a daily training of the attention will not only be of momentary use to the young, but will stand them in good stead throughout their whole lives. For if this training last for some years, and they get into the habit of concentrating their minds on whatever is being done at the time, they will continue to do so of their own accord without any external pressure. If schools are organised on this principle, surely we may look forward to a considerable increase in the number of clever and intelligent men!

22. To this it may be objected that individual attention is necessary to see that each scholar keeps his books tidy, writes his exercises carefully, and learns his lessons ​accurately, and that, if the class be large, this will take a great deal of time. I answer: It is not necessary for the teacher to hear the lessons or inspect the books of each individual scholar; since he has the leaders of divisions to assist him, and each of these can inspect the scholars in his own division.

23. The teacher, as chief inspector, should give his attention first to one scholar, then to another, more particularly with the view of testing the honesty of those whom he distrusts. For example, if the scholars have to say a repetition lesson, he should call first on one pupil, then on another, first one at the top of the class and then one at the bottom, while all the rest attend. He may thus ensure that each one be in readiness, since none can be certain that he will not be examined. If the teacher observe that a scholar begins his lessons without hesitation, and feel convinced that he knows the rest equally well, he may let another one go on, and if this one in turn seem well prepared, may pass on to a third. In this way, by hearing a few, he can rest assured that he has the whole class under his control.

24. The same method should be pursued with dictations. One or more scholars should read out what has been written, with the right punctuation and in a clear voice, while the rest correct what they have written in their books. The teacher should also himself examine the books from time to time, and should punish any scholar who has been doing his work carelessly.

25. The correction of written translations seems to demand more time; but here also the same method may be adopted with advantage. As soon as the leaders of divisions have secured attention, one scholar should be called upon to stand up and choose as his adversary any other scholar that he pleases. As soon as this latter stands up, the first scholar reads out his translation sentence by sentence, while all the rest listen attentively, the teacher in the meantime looking at the exercise to see that it is properly written. At the end of each sentence ​the scholar stops, and his adversary has the opportunity of pointing out any mistake that he may have perceived. Then other scholars in the division, and after them the whole class, may make criticisms on the rendering, and finally the teacher supplies any point that has been omitted. While this is going on, the others correct the mistakes in their own exercises. The adversary, however, should not do so, but should keep his own unaltered that he may submit it to the criticism of his companions. As soon as the first sentence has been properly corrected, the next is taken, and so on until the exercise is finished. Then the adversary should read out his in the same way, while the original challenger takes care that he really reads his original translation and does not insert the corrections that have been made. The individual words and phrases are then criticised as before. After this, a second pair of adversaries is chosen, and the same procedure is repeated for as long as the time permits.

26. In this connection the leaders have two duties to perform. Before the corrections begin they should see that all the scholars have their exercises ready, and while it is going on they should take care that each of them corrects his exercise when it contains the mistake that is under consideration.

27. The result of this will be

(i) That the work of the teacher will be lightened.

(ii) That no scholar will be neglected.

(iii) That the scholars will attend better than formerly.

(iv) That what is said to one will be of equal advantage to all.

(v) The differences in the mode of expression, that are certain to occur in so many different translations, will not only improve and strengthen the scholar’s acquaintance with the subject-matter, but will also give him facility in using the language.

(vi) Finally, as soon as the first, second, and third pair have finished, it will frequently happen that the ​others have few or no mistakes left to correct. When this is the case, the remainder of the time may be devoted to the class in general, that those who are still uncertain about a passage may bring forward their difficulties, or those who think that their rendering is better than that which has been given may read it and receive criticism on it.

28. The method here suggested has been illustrated by an exercise in translation. Its application, however, is just as easy, if the exercise be one in style, rhetoric, logic, theology, or philosophy.

29. We have thus seen that one teacher can instruct a hundred scholars with as little labour as he would expend in teaching a few.

Second Problem

How is it possible for all the scholars to be taught from the same books?

30. It is an undisputed fact that too many objects at once distract the attention. It will therefore be of immense advantage if the scholars be allowed to use no books but those that have been expressly composed for the class in which they are; and in this way it will always be possible to use with effect the order that was given to the worshippers in the temples of old, namely, “This shalt thou do.” Since the less the eyes are distracted, the easier it is to concentrate the mind.

31. Secondly, if all the materials that are required for instruction, blackboards, inscriptions, first reading books, dictionaries, schematic diagrams of the arts, etc., be kept in constant readiness. For if (as is often the case) the teacher must prepare the exercise-books for the scholars, and write a model for them to copy, or if he have to dictate grammatical rules, the text of an author, or its translation, how much time is thereby lost! It is therefore necessary that sufficient quantities of all the books which are used in each class be kept in readiness, and that translations be supplied with those texts that are to be ​translated into the mother-tongue. In this way the time that would otherwise have been employed in dictation, copying, and translating, can be used, and with far greater advantage, for explanation, repetition, and imitation.

32. There need be no fear that any concession is here being made to the teacher’s idleness. For a preacher is considered to have done his duty if he read a text from the Bible, explain it, and point out its application, and it is a matter of indifference to his hearers whether he has himself translated the text from the original, or has used some standard translation; and in the same way it makes no difference to the scholars whether the teacher has arranged his own materials or whether some one else has done so for him. The important thing is that everything necessary be ready to hand, and that, under the teacher’s direction, it be properly employed. It is indeed much better that everything of this nature be prepared beforehand, since, on the one hand, it will be freer from errors, and, on the other, more time will be left for the actual process of instruction.

33. For every school, therefore, books of this kind should be written,—in accordance with the rules already laid down for the attainment of ease, thoroughness, and economy of time,—and should constitute a complete, thorough, and accurate epitome of all the subjects of instruction. In short, they should give a true representation of the entire universe, which can thus be impressed upon the minds of the scholars. They should also, and this is a most important point, be written simply and clearly, and should give the scholars sufficient assistance to enable them, if necessary, to pursue their studies without the help of a teacher.

34. With this end in view it is desirable that they be written in the form of a dialogue. In this way (1) it is possible to suit the subject-matter and its exposition to the minds of the young, that neither may appear to them to be too full of difficulties. Nothing is more suited to inspire confidence than dialogue-form, and by means of it ​the mind can be gradually led on to the desired goal. It is in this form that playwrights have expressed their views on the deterioration of morals, and have thereby admonished the people; in this form Plato wrote all his philosophical, and St. Augustine all his theological works, and Cicero also has employed it largely, thus coming down to the level of his readers. (2) Conversational form excites and retains the attention, while the alternation between question and answer, the various forms of expression and the amusing remarks that may be introduced, and even the changes that may be rung upon the {lang|la|dramatis personæ}}, all tend, not merely to counteract any antipathy to the subject, but even to create a keen desire to know more about it. (3) Instruction makes a far greater impression when given in this way. We remember an event better when we have seen it ourselves than when we have simply heard it narrated, and, in the same way, instruction that is given through the medium of a drama or of a dialogue stays in the heads of the scholars far better than if it be merely set forth by a teacher in the ordinary way, as may be proved by experience. (4) The greater part of our lives consists of friendly conversation, and it should therefore be easy to induce the young to acquire useful information, when they are at the same time learning to express themselves fluently and well. (5) Finally, dialogues of this kind act as a mild recreation, and may enliven the private gatherings of the students.

35. It is also desirable that the books used be of the same edition, so that they may be similar page for page and line for line. This is important both for the sake of reference and that the localisation of passages on certain pages may assist the memory.

36. It will also be of great use if an abstract of the contents of all the books used in the class be placed on the walls of the room. This should consist of the text, greatly abbreviated and condensed, or of illustrative pictures and reliefs, by means of which the senses, the memory, and the understanding may be daily exercised in con​junction. Not without purpose was it that, as the ancients relate, the walls of the temple of Æsculapius were covered with the precepts of the art of medicine, written there by Hippocrates himself. This great theatre of the world, also, God has filled with pictures, statues, and living emblems of His wisdom, that He may instruct us by their means. (Of these pictorial aids we will say more when we treat of the individual classes.)

Third Problem

How is it possible for all the scholars in a school to do the same thing at one time?

37. It is evident that it would be a useful arrangement if all the pupils in a class did the same lesson at one time, for in this way the teacher would have less trouble and the scholars greater advantage. It is only when the attention of all is fixed on the same object, and when each tries in turn to correct the other, that keen rivalry can arise. In every way the teacher must imitate a captain of recruits. This latter does not exercise each of his men separately, but leads out a whole company at once and shows them how to use their arms; and even if he explain anything to one man apart, the remainder have to go through the same exercise in order that their attention may be retained.

The teacher should proceed on precisely similar lines.

38. Before he can do this it is necessary

(i) That the course of instruction commence at one definite time in each year, just as the influence of the sun on the vegetable world commences at one definite time, namely, in spring.

(ii) That the subjects of instruction be so divided that each year, each month, each week, each day, and even each hour may have a definite task appointed for it, since, if this be done, everything that is proposed will be completed with ease. But of this we will say more in the proper place.​

Fourth Problem

How is it possible to teach everything according to one and the same method?

39. That there is only one natural method for all the sciences, and only one for all the arts and languages, will be shown in chaps. xx., xxi., and xxii. Any deviations that may be necessary are not important enough to constitute a fresh class, and are due less to peculiarities in the subject-matter an to the tea himself, who must be guided by the ability, or the reverse, of his pupils and by the progress that they make in the actual languages or arts that he is teaching. The universal adoption of the natural method, therefore, will be as great a boon to scholars as a plain and undeviating road is to travellers  It will be easier to point out special aberrations, if the universal principle be first laid down as indisputable.

Fifth Problem

How can many things be explained in a few words?

40. To fill the minds of scholars with a dreary waste of books and of words is lost labour. For it is certain that a crust of bread and a mouthful of wine are more nutritious than a paunchful of trifle and of ragout, and that it is better to have a few gold pieces in one’s purse than a hundred-weight of lead. Rightly does Seneca say of instruction: “Its administration should resemble the sowing of seed, in which stress is laid, not on quantity, but on quality.” The conclusion, therefore, that we reached in chap. v. holds good: In man, the microcosm, everything is contained potentially. Bring light and he will straightway see.

And indeed for men who are working in the dark the faintest glimmer of light is sufficient. It is therefore necessary to select or to write handbooks of the sciences and languages which are small in compass and practically ​arranged cover the whole subject and contain a great deal of matter in a short space (Ecclesiasticus xxxii. 8)—that is to say, which place before the scholar the whole of the subject-matter by means of a small number of rules and definitions expressed in the simplest and clearest language, and sufficient in themselves to lead to more profound study.

Sixth Problem

How is it possible to do two or three things by a single operation?

41. The example of nature shows that several things can be done at one time and by means of the same operation. It is an undoubted fact that a tree grows above the ground and beneath it at the same time, and that its wood, its bark, its leaves, and its fruit, all develope simultaneously. The same observation applies to animals, whose limbs all develope and grow stronger at the same time. Further, each limb performs several operations. The feet, for instance, not only support a man but also move him forwards and backwards in various ways. The mouth is not only the entrance to the body, but also serves as a masticator and as a trumpet that sounds whenever called upon to do so. With a single inspiration the lungs cool the heart, purify the brain, and assist in voice-production.

42. We find the same thing in the arts: (1) In the sun-dial, the single shadow cast by the gnomon points out the hour of the day, the sign of the zodiac in which the sun is moving, the length of the day and of the night, the day of the month, and several other things. (2) One pole serves to direct, to turn, and to hold back a carriage. (3) A good orator or writer instructs, excites, and pleases at the same time, even though his subject may make it difficult to combine these three elements.

43. The instruction of the young should be similarly organised, so that every activity may produce several results. It may be laid down as a general rule that each ​subject should be taught in combination with those which are correlative to it; that is to say, words should be studied in combination with the things to which they refer; while reading and writing, exercises in style and in logical thought, teaching and learning, amusement and serious study, should be continually joined together.

44. Words, therefore, should always be taught and learned in combination with things, just as wine is bought and sold together with the cask that contains it, a dagger with its sheath, a tree with its bark, and fruit with its skin. For what are words but the husks and coverings of things? Therefore, when instruction is given in any language, even in the mother-tongue itself, the words must be explained by reference to the objects that they denote; and contrari-wise, the scholars must be taught to express in language whatever they see, hear, handle, or taste, so that their command of language, as it progresses, may ever run parallel to the growth of the understanding.

The rule shall therefore run as follows: The scholar should be trained to express everything that he sees in words, and should be taught the meaning of all the words that he uses. No one should be allowed to talk about anything that he does not understand, or to understand anything without at the same time being able to express his knowledge in words. For he who cannot express the thoughts of his mind resembles a statue, and he who chatters, without understanding what he says, resembles a parrot.

But we wish to train up men, and to do so as quickly as possible, and this end can only be attained when instruction in language goes hand in hand with instruction in facts.

45. From this it follows that we ought to exclude from our schools all books that merely teach words and do not at the same time lead to a knowledge of useful objects. We must bestow our labour on that which is of real importance, and, therefore (as Seneca says in his 9th Letter), must devote ourselves to the improvement of our understanding ​rather than to the enlargement of our vocabulary. Any reading that is necessary can be got through quickly out of school-hours without tedious explanations or attempts at imitation; since the time thus spent could be better employed in the study of nature.

46. Exercises in reading and writing should always be combined. Even when scholars are learning their alphabet, they should be made to master the letters by writing them; since it is impossible to find a more agreeable method or one that will give them a greater incentive to work. For, since all children have a natural desire to draw, this exercise will give them pleasure, and the imagination will be excited by the twofold action of the senses. Later on, when they can read with ease, they should be made to exercise their powers on subject-matter that would in any case have to be learned, that is to say, something calculated to give them practical information or to instil morality or piety. The same plan may be adopted when they learn to read Latin, Greek, or Hebrew. It will be of great advantage to read and copy the declensions and conjugations over and over again, until, by this means, reading, writing, the meaning of the words, and the formation of the case-endings, have been thoroughly learned. In this case we have a fourfold result from a single exercise. A system of concentration that is of such vital importance should be applied to all branches of study, in order that, as Seneca says, what is learned by reading may be given form by writing, or that, as St. Augustine says of himself, we may write while we make progress and make progress while we write.

47. As a rule, no care is shown in the choice of the subjects that are given as exercises in style, and there is no connection between the successive subjects. The result is that they are exercises in style and nothing else, and have very little influence on the reasoning powers; indeed it frequently happens that, after much time and study have been devoted to them, they prove absolutely worthless and of no use for the business of life. Literary taste should therefore be taught by means of the subject-​matter of the science or art on which the reasoning powers of the class are being exercised. The teacher should tell his pupils stories about the originators of the subject and the times in which they lived, or should give them exercises in imitation based on the subject-matter, so that, by a single effort, notions of style may be imbibed, the reasoning powers may be improved, and, since either the teacher or the pupils are continually talking, the faculty of speech also may be exercised.

48. Towards the end of the 18th chapter I have shown that it is possible for the scholars to give instruction in the subject that they have just learned, and, since this process not only makes them thorough but also enables them to make progress more rapidly, it should not be overlooked in this connection.

49. Finally, it will be of immense use, if the amusements that are provided to relax the strain on the minds of the scholars be of such a kind as to lay stress on the more serious side of life, in order that a definite impression may be made on them even in their hours of recreation. For instance, they may be given tools, and allowed to imitate the different handicrafts, by playing at farming, at politics, at being soldiers or architects, etc. In spring they may be taken into the garden or into the country, and may be taught the various species of plants, vying with one another to see who can recognise the greater number. In this way they will be introduced to the rudiments of medicine, and not only will it be evident which of them has a natural bent towards that science, but in many the inclination will be created. Further, in order to encourage them, the mock titles of doctor, licentiate, or student of medicine may be given to those who make the greatest progress. The same plan may be adopted in other kinds of recreation. In the game of war the scholars may become field-marshals, generals, captains, or standard-bearers. In that of politics they may be kings, ministers, chancellors, secretaries, ambassadors, etc., and, on the same principle, consuls, senators, lawyers, or officials; since such pleasantries often ​lead to serious things. Thus would be fulfilled Luther’s wish that the studies of the young at school could be so organised that the scholars might take as much pleasure in them as in playing at ball all day, and thus for the first time would schools be a real prelude to practical life.

Seventh Problem

How are the subjects of study to be progressively graded?

50. How this can be done, we have seen in the 5th, 6th, 7th and 8th Principles of the 16th chapter, and in the 5th, 6th and 7th Principles of the 18th chapter. The important point is that suitable books should be written for the classical schools, and that these should embody hints to the teacher for their proper use, so that learning, morality, and piety may be led from one stage to another until they reach the highest.

Eighth Problem

Of the removal and avoidance of obstructions.

51. Truly has it been said, that nothing is more useless than to learn and to know much, if such knowledge be of no avail for practical purposes; and again, that not he who knows much is wise, but he who knows what is useful. The task of schools will therefore be rendered easier if the subjects taught be curtailed. This can be done if omission be made

(i) Of all unnecessary matter.

(ii) Of all unsuitable matter.

(iii) Of all minute detail.

52. Anything is unnecessary that is productive neither of piety nor of morality, and that is not essential for the cultivation of the mind. Such are the names of heathen deities, the myths connected with them, and the religious observances of the ancients, as well as the productions of scurrilous and indecent poets and dramatists. It may occasionally be necessary for the individual to read these things in private, but in the schools, where the founda​tions of wisdom should be laid, nothing of the kind should be permitted. “What madness it is,” says Seneca, “to learn so much trash, when time is so precious.” Nothing, therefore, should be learned solely for its value at school, but for its use in life, that the information which a scholar has acquired may not vanish as soon as he leaves school.

53. Knowledge is unsuitable when it is uncongenial to the mind of this or that scholar. For there is as great a difference between the minds of men as exists between the various kinds of plants, of trees, or of animals; one must be treated in one way, and another in another, and the same method cannot be applied to all alike. It is true that there are men of great mental power who can compass every subject; but there are also many who find the greatest difficulty in mastering the rudiments of some things. Some display great ability for abstract science, but have as little aptitude for practical studies as an ass has for playing on the lyre. Others can learn everything but music, while others again are unable to master mathematics, poetry, or logic. What should be done in these cases? If we attempt to counteract a natural disinclination we are fighting against nature, and such effort is useless. For there will be either no result or one totally incommensurate with the energy expended. The teacher is the servant and not the lord of nature; his mission is to cultivate and not to transform, and therefore he should never attempt to force a scholar to study any subject if he see that it is uncongenial to his natural disposition; since it is more than probable that what is lacking in one direction will be compensated for in another. If one branch be cut off a tree, the others become stronger, because more vitality flows into them; and if none of the scholars be forced to study any subject against his will, we shall find no cases in which disgust is produced and the intelligence is blunted. Each one will develope in the direction of his natural inclinations (in accordance with the Divine will), and will serve God and man in his station in life, whatever that may be.

​54. In the same way, if all minute and technical details (such as the species of plants and of animals, the various callings of mechanics, the names of all their tools and so forth) had to be learned, this would be a most wearisome and confusing task. In school-work it is sufficient if the wide classes that exist in nature, with their most important and most essential divisions, be made thoroughly clear. More specialised knowledge can easily be acquired later, as the opportunity arises.

Those who wish to win a speedy victory over the enemy, do not waste time in storming unimportant places, but go straight to the head-quarters of the war; since it is certain that, if they can get the upper hand in a pitched battle, and capture the most important strongholds, all the others will surrender of their own accord. In the same way, if the principal points of any subject be mastered, the subsidiary details will be acquired with great ease. To this class of obstructions belong the voluminous dictionaries that contain every word in a language. For, since the greater number of them are never used, why should we force boys to learn them all, and thus overburden the memory?

We have now treated of the saving of time and effort in teaching and in learning.